Summary
1 Themes, Processes, and Periods
2 A Healthy Relativism
3 Bibliographical References
The history of Christianity is different from ecclesiology, which is the theological reflection on the Church. Interestingly, this history is a field of knowledge common to believers and non-believers. Believers can produce a historiography of Christianity, provided they are rigorous in their method and do not get carried away by uncritical apologetic impulses. Non-believers can also produce it, provided they have the necessary religious literacy to understand this belief, an affinity for its themes, and the same methodological rigor. Believers may be perplexed by certain realities of the past when they are known in more depth. But if they embrace their own perplexity, they can overcome naivety and achieve a more mature faith. Non-believers, in turn, can go beyond a common-sense agnosticism, which is not infrequently based on simplifications of the past. Both can broaden their horizons, growing in knowledge and wisdom.
It is in the unfolding of history that people and communities, including Christians and their institutions, became what they are today. Therefore, much can be learned from it. However, today history is not rigorously considered a teacher, as it does not have a univocal meaning like a teacher teaching lessons in a classroom. There are many possible perspectives, which can be equally valid. All history is always born from questions formulated in the present about the past. Without questions, there is no history. Its various fields are closely connected. Therefore, the history of Christianity is linked to social and cultural history, and the history of mentalities.
1 Themes, Processes, and Periods
Throughout the 20th century, the writing of history underwent changes in its themes and interests. It once focused on great events, biographies of illustrious personalities, and political chronicles, with a focus on subjects and events that attracted much attention. Later, it turned to the structures of daily life, such as societies, ordinary people, economies, material life, and mentalities. Themes like food, clothing, housing, transportation, private life, women, childhood, fear, security, and hope became of interest to history. This shift in focus also affects the history of Christianity. It once focused heavily on the ecclesiastical institution, ecumenical councils, papal documents, the creation of bishoprics, and hagiographies (lives of saints). The Church’s self-understanding as a perfect society, a society lacking no element to be complete, contributed to this. The institutional component prevailed. But with the Second Vatican Council (1962-1965), which defined the Church as the people of God, the laity and lived Christianity began to be emphasized more. Themes such as popular religiosity, lay associations, and the reception of councils in local churches gained importance.
The processes of continuity and change in societies and civilizations, extensively researched by historian Fernand Braudel, also apply to Christianity. He developed the concept of the “longue durée.” At the center of social reality, there is a living, intimate, and incessantly repeated opposition between what changes and what insists on remaining, a dialectic of duration (BRAUDEL, 1992a, p.41-78). In the movements that affect the mass of current history, there is a fantastic heritage from the past. The past smears the present time. Every society is touched by the waters of the past. This movement is not a conscious force; it is, in a way, inhuman, the unconscious of history. The past, especially the ancient past, invades the present and in a way takes over our lives. The present is, to a large extent, the prey of a past that insists on surviving; and the past, with its rules, differences, and similarities, is the indispensable key to any serious understanding of the present time. In general, there are no rapid social changes. Even revolutions are not total ruptures.
A revolution as profound as the French one is far from having changed everything overnight. Change always coexists with non-change. Like the waters of a river condemned to run between two banks, passing islands, sandbanks, and obstacles, change is caught in a trap. If it manages to suppress a considerable part of the past, it is necessary that this part not have too strong a resistance, and that it is already worn out by itself. Change adheres to non-change, follows its weaknesses, and uses its lines of least resistance. Alongside quarrels and conflicts, there are compromises, coexistences, and adjustments. In frequent divisions between for and against, there is, on one side, what moves; on the other, what insists on staying in the same place (BRAUDEL, 1992b, p.356-7). In Christianity, continuities and changes are always present and mutually interacting, sometimes opposing, sometimes articulating.
In the periodization of the history of Christianity, one can adopt Hubert Jedin’s division of the history of the Church into four units:
1 – Christianity in the Hellenistic-Roman cultural sphere (1st to 7th century);
2 – Christianity as the foundation of the Western Christian peoples (c. 700 to 1300);
3 – The dissolution of the Western Christian world and the transition to the world mission (1300 to 1750);
4 – Christianity in the industrial age (19th and 20th centuries).
Another similar periodization is that of Marcel Chappin:
1 – Until 400: a Christianity distant from the world;
2 – Between 400 and 1800: Christianity almost fully identified with the world; which can be subdivided:
a) 400-1000: emperors and kings dominate;
b) 1000-1500: the clergy dominates;
c) 1500-1800: the absolute State dominates;
3 – 1800-1960: a certain isolation from a world hostile to the Church, with the dream of returning to the previous situation;
4 – From Vatican II onwards: insertion into the world as a critical instance (CHAPPIN, 1990, p.127-8).
2 A Healthy Relativism
The retrospective view of history shows the different understandings of the same concept over time. Holiness, for example, which is fidelity to God in fulfilling His Word, was understood in ancient Israel as the strict observance of the Law of Moses, including abstinence from the meat of animals, reptiles, and birds considered impure (Lev 20:25-26). In the New Testament, however, holiness is life in Christ, accessible to converted pagans, dispensing with that Law. In the Middle Ages, Saint Louis, king of France, launched into the crusades against the Moors, where he would die. Saint Ignatius of Loyola, in the 16th century, was a fierce opponent of the Protestant Reformation, urging rulers to apply all existing laws against heresies, including the death penalty where it existed (LOYOLA, 1963, p. 877-84). Pope John XXIII, recently canonized, affirmed the “highest relevance” of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, made by the United Nations in 1948, containing freedom of conscience and religious freedom (JOHN XXIII, 1963, n.141-144). This pope contradicted the teaching of many of his predecessors. In all this, it is clear that the genuine spirit of the Gospel is understood differently in each era.
Historical science allows us to overcome common sense regarding the crusades, colonization, the inquisition, and religious wars. The proper contextualization of laws, societies, and mentalities in their respective eras avoids perverse anachronism, ideological policing of the past, and the moral lynching of individuals. For theology, history is a “theological locus,” a source of knowledge in this field of study. According to Yves Congar, history opens the way to a “healthy relativism.” This is something very different from skepticism; it is the proper perception of the relativity of what is effectively relative, so as to qualify as absolute only that which truly is. Thanks to history, one can understand the exact proportion of things, avoiding considering as the Tradition something that dates from the day before yesterday, and that has changed more than once over time. One can face the drama of many anxieties brought by the emergence of new ideas and forms. With history, it is possible to better situate oneself in the present, with a more lucid awareness of what is really unfolding, and of the meaning of the tensions being experienced (CONGAR, 1970, p.886-94).
The biblical revelation of God’s name, Yahweh (Ex 3:14), means “I will be there with you.” God is the living God, who manifests Himself in his works, in a history that will only end at the end of time. Christ is not only the Alpha, but also the Omega (Rev 1:8). His truth is yet to be realized. There is something unexpressed, unsaid, of his Word that, to be said, requires the variety of history and peoples, a variety not yet acquired. The divine Word, in gestures or expressed, holds an unlimited depth. It is proposed to human beings in the diversity of times and places, of experiences, problems, and cultures. Human history, with its novelty and its permanent newness, on one hand, always demands a response to still unknown questions and, on the other hand, contributes with means of expression that did not yet exist (CONGAR, ibidem dec 8, 2014). The fullness of Christ is manifested in the unfolding of history and requires history to manifest itself. Hence the importance of recognizing the “signs of the times,” as the Second Vatican Council teaches (Gaudium et Spes, 1965, n.44).
The experience of past centuries, scientific progress, the cultural riches of various peoples, which manifest the human condition and open new paths to the truth, also benefit the Church. From the beginning of its history, the Church has formulated Christ’s message through the concepts and languages of peoples, even resorting to philosophical knowledge, with the aim of adapting the Gospel to the people’s capacity for understanding and to the demands of the wise. This adapted way of propagating the Christian message, the Council affirms, must be the law of all evangelization. Thus, in each nation, the possibility arises of expressing this message in its own way, fostering an intense exchange between the Church and the diverse cultures of peoples. For this exchange, which takes place throughout history, the Church needs people inserted in the world who know well the spirit and content of the various institutions and knowledge, whether they are believers or not (GS n.44).
The Christian people, especially their pastors and theologians, are exhorted to listen, discern, and interpret the various languages and expressions of the present times, and to judge them in the light of God’s word, with the help of the Holy Spirit, so that the divine Revelation may be ever more intimately perceived, better understood, and presented in a suitable way. As the Church has a visible social structure, it can also be enriched by the evolution of social life in history. All who promote the good of the human community in various fields also help the ecclesial community, to the extent that it depends on external realities. In all this, the Council recognizes, there is a help that the Church receives from the world. Furthermore, it has benefited greatly, and can benefit, from the opposition of its adversaries and persecutors (GS n.44). This rich interaction between the Church and the world, over the course of time, is a vast field of research and study for the historian.
Congar’s healthy relativism also concerns the mutability of doctrinal formulations. For him, the only way to say the same thing in a context that has changed is to say it differently (CONGAR, 1984, p.6). This same idea is expressed by Pope John XXIII, who opened the Council by proposing that the teaching of the Church be deepened and expounded in a way that responds to the demands of the present times. One thing are the truths contained in the doctrine, and another is the formulation with which they are enunciated, preserving their same meaning and scope. Great importance should be attributed to this form and patience should be insisted upon in its elaboration (JOHN XXIII, 1962). Dogma and history are always closely linked. The formulation of the dogma, the preservation and deepening of its meaning, and the new forms of its enunciation depend on history and its contexts.
Regarding the people involved in historical dramas and conflicts, the reflection of Cardinal Carlo M. Martini on divine judgment is fitting. He states that there is a “Christian relativism,” which is to understand all things in relation to the moment when history will be openly judged. Then the works of men will appear with their true value. The Lord will be the judge of hearts, and each one will receive from him his due praise. There will no longer be applause and boos, approval or disapproval from others. The Lord will provide the ultimate and definitive criterion for the reality of this world. The judgment of history will be fulfilled, and it will be seen who was right. Many things will be clarified, illuminated, and pacified, also for those who still suffer in this world, involved in obscurity, still without understanding the meaning of what happens to them. It is from the culminating moment when history will be judged by God that the human being is invited to interpret their small daily history. History is not an infinite process wrapped in itself, meaningless and ending in nothing. It is something that God himself will gather, judge, and weigh with the scales of his love and his mercy, but also of his justice (MARTINI, 2005).
These considerations by Martini find support in the exhortation of the apostle Paul: do not judge before the time, but wait for the Lord to come, for he will bring to light everything that is hidden in darkness and will manifest the intentions of the hearts. Then, each one will receive from God the praise that corresponds to him (1 Cor 4:5). With this Christian relativism, one can look with more serenity at the complex events of the past and their implications, without the eagerness to point out who was right and who was not.
In this way, Martini enunciates healthy relativism with another name, emphasizing the full manifestation of the absolute at the end of history. The proper perception of what is not absolute or untouchable is a necessary task for those who wish to show the permanent relevance of the Christian mystery and make it credible in today’s secularized society. Healthy relativism is inevitable when one admits that the Church has benefited greatly, and can benefit, from the opposition of its adversaries.
Luís Corrêa Lima, SJ, PUC-Rio, Brazil. Original Portuguese text.
3 Bibliographical References
BRAUDEL, Fernand. Escritos sobre a história. São Paulo: Perspectiva, 1992.
____. Reflexões sobre a história. São Paulo: Martins Fontes, 1992.
CHAPPIN, Marcel. Introdução à história da Igreja. São Paulo: Loyola, 1990.
CONCÍLIO VATICANO II, Constituição Pastoral Gaudium et spes sobre a Igreja no mundo actual. Roma, 1965. Available at: <www.vatican.va>.
CONGAR, Yves-Marie. A história da Igreja, “lugar teológico”. Concilium: revista internacional de teologia, 1970, n.7, p. 886-94.
____. La tradition et la vie de l’Église. Paris: Cerf, 1984.
FRANZEN, August. Breve história da Igreja. Lisboa: Presença, 1996.
JOÃO XXIII. Discurso de sua santidade papa João XXIII na abertura solene do SS. Concílio. Roma, 1962. Available at: <www.vatican.va>.
____. Carta encíclica Pacem in terris. Roma, 1963, n.141-144. Available at: <www.vatican.va>.
LIMA, Luís Corrêa. The historian between faith and relativism. In: Ignacio Silva. (Org.). Latin american perspectives on science and religion. Londres: Pickering & Chatto, 2014. p.43-55.
LOYOLA, San Ignacio de. Al P. Pedro Canisio (Roma, 13 ago. 1554). In: Obras completas de San Ignacio de Loyola. Madri: Biblioteca de Autores Cristianos, 1963. p.877-84.
ROGIER, L. J.; AUBERT, R.; KNOWLES, M. D. (org.). Nova história da Igreja. v.1 e 2. Petrópolis: Vozes, 1973-1976.
BELLITTO, Christopher M. História dos 21 Concílios da Igreja: de Niceia ao Vaticano II. São Paulo: Loyola, 2010.
FRÖHLICH, Roland. Curso básico de história da Igreja. São Paulo: Paulinas, 1987.
LINDBERG, Carter. Uma breve história do cristianismo. São Paulo: Loyola, 2008.
MARTINI, Carlo Maria. Omelia del cardinale Carlo Maria Martini per il XXV anniversario di episcopato. Milão, 8 maio 2005. Available at: <www.chiesadimilano.it>.
REMOND, René (org.). As grandes descobertas do cristianismo. São Paulo: Loyola, 2005.
To learn more:
COMBY, J.
Para ler a história da Igreja. v.I e II. São Paulo: Loyola, 1996.
LENZENWEGER, J.; STOCKMEIER, P.; AMON, K.; ZINNHOBLER, R. História da Igreja Católica. São Paulo: Loyola, 2006.
POTESTÀ, G. L.; VIAN, G. História do cristianismo. São Paulo: Loyola, 2013.