Contemporary Catholicism

Summary

1 French Revolution and the Catholic Church

1.1 Revolution inspired by the Enlightenment

2 Catholicism and the Restoration Process (1814–1846)

2.1 Restoration, a concept

2.2 Aggressive strategy against modernity

3 Catholicism and the fight against liberalism (1846–1878)

4 The social question and Catholicism

4.1 Leo XIII (1878–1903) and the social question

4.2 Rerum Novarum (1891)

5 Condemnation of modernism and inter-ecclesial reforms

5.1 Against modernism

5.2 Inter-ecclesial reforms

6 Renewal movements

7 Catholicism and the World Wars

7.1 Interwar period

7.2 Pius XII: pastoral, theology, and World War II

8 Transition and renewal, the Christian pope

8.1 John XXIII (1958–1963)

8.2 Vatican II (1962–1965) and its relation to modernity

8.3 Paul VI, reformer and misunderstood (1963–1978)

9 The criticized saint and his successor

9.1 John Paul II (1978–2005)

9.2 Benedict XVI (2005–2013)

10 The return to Christianity: Francis

11 Bibliographic References

1 French Revolution and the Catholic Church

1.1 Revolution inspired by the Enlightenment

At the turn of the 18th to the 19th century, European society entered a great stage of transformations driven by the Enlightenment (intellectual), the French (social-bourgeois), and the Industrial (capitalist-economic) revolutions. The Enlightenment, in the “century of lights” (18th century), broke with religious determinism, gave unconditional strength to critical reasoning, questioned submissive obedience, organized knowledge by creating research methods, and criticized authority and power. Its criticism did not spare the Catholic Church: a social gap between high and low clergy, and indifference to the people’s hardships. The French social revolution affected the entire West, leaving deep marks on Catholicism. The struggle was grounded in the outcomes of the medieval society (clergy, nobility, artisans) and the industrial society (bourgeoisie and workers). The economic revolution brought changes in the production system; capitalism exploited natural resources, benefited from scientific progress, but progress brought with it serious consequences for society. Among them, human exploitation: long working hours, rural exodus, end of artisans, social division of labor, urban concentration, poor living conditions, prostitution, alcoholism, crime, epidemics, and a multitude of dispossessed people.

The French Revolution was an unexpected event for the Catholic Church, conceived in the cradle of the Enlightenment. Its unfolding led to other revolutions until the military dictatorship of Napoleon Bonaparte. The 19th century began for the Church with a new pontificate, Pius VII (1800–1823). After several negotiations, the Pope signed, together with Napoleon, the Concordat (1801). The document was an attempt to restore diplomatic relations between the two States. Thus, the Church renounced the confiscated properties and accepted that the clergy’s remuneration would be paid by the French State. Bonaparte secretly added 77 ‘organic articles’ to the Concordat, which partially abolished its achievements. The Pope’s protest had no effect, and Pius VII would still suffer other humiliations from Napoleon, who in 1808 ordered the occupation of Rome and the Papal States. The Pope excommunicated Napoleon, who then made Pius VII a prisoner in Fontainebleau, pressuring him to abdicate the Papal States. With Napoleon’s fall, following the Russian campaign (1812) and the Battle of Leipzig (1813), and with allied troops invading Paris (1814), Europe’s reordering was undertaken by the Congress of Vienna (1814–1815).

At the beginning of the 19th century, the papacy seemed to be going through one of the most difficult moments of the modern era. Pius VI had died (1799) alone and abandoned, a prisoner of the French Revolution. Episcopalism seemed poised to triumph, and the papal system and infallibility, according to some German and French authors, were seen as outdated and historically irrelevant issues. No other historical event contributed as much to the triumph of the papacy at Vatican I (1869–70) as the French Revolution. With Pius VII, the reorganization of the French Church took place (1801), and 36 bishops living outside France were deposed, demonstrating, despite everything, that the papacy still held power. This was a step toward ultramontanism.

2 Catholicism and the Restoration Process (1814–1846)

2.1 Restoration, a concept

With the end of the French Revolution and the Napoleonic period, Europe found itself in a state of total political, cultural, and religious disarray. It was deemed essential, by the religious institution and many members of society, to restore order by reestablishing the principles of authority, religion, and morality, as they existed under the Ancien Régime.

2.2 Aggressive strategy against modernity

The restoration program is evident in the pontificate of Pope Leo XII (1823–1829). His concern was to recover everything that secularization and revolution had destroyed. The intention was never to adapt the Church to the demands of the new times, but to restore it to earlier times. His successor, Pius VIII (1829–1830), did not have different goals. His approach was to defend the Church and the Catholic faith, protecting it from the errors of what he deemed false and perverse doctrines that attacked the faith. Education should be in the hands of the Catholic religion. It was clear that this pontificate would be one of transition. The great shift would come with his successor.

The Catholic institution’s aggressive reaction to modernity was not long in coming. Gregory XVI (1831–1846), the new pope, carried out a pontificate aligned with the cultural and political context of his time. Culture was dominated by Enlightenment thinking, anti-clericalism, Freemasonry, and anti-religious elements, while official politics leaned toward restoration. In this context, the pope published the encyclical Mirari vos (1832). Among the topics addressed, in extremely harsh terms, were two perceived sources of evil: freedom of the press and religious indifferentism. From the standpoint of the prevailing medieval Christian mentality and ideal of a perfect society, the pope could not perceive any positive signs in his time, nor did he recognize the concerning issues within the religious institution that required transformation. The idea of Church renewal was rejected and considered an outrage. He condemned railways, bridges, and electricity. Everything was seen as a sign of modernity and, consequently, as errors to be condemned. The model of a Christendom-based Church would prevail throughout the 19th century.

A significant aspect of this period was the vitality of the Church’s missionary action through many religious communities and a notable blossoming of new congregations, especially in the fields of education, care for the sick, and missionary work. The contradictions of history continued throughout the 19th century. On one hand, part of the institution engaged in conflict with modernity; on the other, other sectors experienced a missionary fervor, founding congregations dedicated exclusively to missions and preparing for the future establishment of local churches.

3 Catholicism and the Fight Against Liberalism (1846–1878)

The end of Pope Gregory XVI’s pontificate was seen as a liberation by the Romans. Neither the pope nor his Secretary of State, Cardinal Lambruschini, were well-liked, and their governance was considered tyrannical and obscurantist. Everyone hoped for a new pope capable of diplomatically addressing the social and political situation. When Pius IX (1846–1878) was elected, liberals and democrats shaped the image of a liberal pope, although he would later be accused of being an enemy of freedom of conscience and worship, and of promoting a Church hostile to modern society. He defended the full independence of the pope and the Church from the State and was a fierce opponent of Gallicanism. On one hand, anticlericals became great enemies of the pope, especially from the second half of the 19th century onward. On the other hand, ultramontanists revered the pope to such an extent that they gave him the title of “the Great.” Three fundamental points marked his pontificate: the proclamation of the dogma of the Immaculate Conception (1854), the publication of the encyclical Quanta Cura and its appendix Syllabus (1864), and the First Vatican Council (1869–70).

Pius IX did not accept the constitutional regime, not only because he believed it was unfit for the Church, but also because he deemed it intrinsically flawed. His aversion to liberal Catholics was profound. The peak of his anti-liberal policy came with the publication of Quanta Cura and the Syllabus. The encyclical aimed to identify “modern errors” that endangered the Church’s faith and to demonstrate their refutation, affirming the authority of the Church, based on divine authority. These errors, stemming from the rise of modern philosophies as expressions of a new mindset, distorted human and ecclesial consciousness. Moral values and the sacred character of society were lost. The highlighted modern errors included naturalism and pantheism, liberalism, communism and socialism, and the separation between Church and State. The appendix to the encyclical, the Syllabus, is a list of 80 modern errors previously addressed and condemned in earlier documents. The document was released at a time of discord among Catholics. In addition to the societal motivations for listing these errors, the pope critically assessed Catholics open to dialogue with modern society — those who were democratic, progressive, or constitutional — while papists, traditionalists, and ultramontanists were overly fixated on the past.

Pius IX’s criticisms aimed to safeguard the Church’s faith and authority within modern society. His apologetics, including the dogma of the Immaculate Conception, emphasized the Church’s stance of defending itself against modernity and asserting its identity, rooted in the Council of Trent (1545–63). These criticisms also helped highlight the extremisms on both sides — defenders and opponents of modernity. His apologetic approach fostered the necessary conditions for seeking balance in the relationship between Church and State, faith and reason.

On the Feast of the Immaculate Conception in 1869, the First Vatican Council was opened with a primary goal: to complete and confirm the doctrinal exposition against the theoretical and practical rationalism of the 19th century. Two constitutions were approved — one on the Catholic faith and another on the role of the Roman Pontiff and his doctrinal authority. In July 1870, the Franco-Prussian War forced the suspension of Vatican I, which was never resumed. Also in 1870, the Papal States were officially annexed to Italian territory, a conflictual situation that led the pope to excommunicate King Victor Emmanuel and retreat to his residence at the Quirinal. Pius IX forbade Italians from running for office or voting in elections. This situation lasted for more than thirty years and marked the beginning of the Roman Question (1870–1929).

Despite historiographical controversies, Pope John Paul II requested the continuation of Pius IX’s beatification process, which was completed alongside that of Pope John XXIII on September 3, 2000.

4 The Social Question and Catholicism

4.1 Leo XIII (1878–1903) and the Social Question

This pontificate achieved a level of prestige not previously attained. The final period of the 19th century coincided with a series of radical changes in the political, economic, social, and scientific fields. In 1892, the pope instructed the French to accept the Republic, marking the end of Christendom for the Catholic world. His magisterium addressed several issues of great relevance at the time, ranging from religious life to social matters. Society was divided by the conflict between capital and labor—this was the social question. Social concern had begun in the second half of the 19th century when various countries saw the emergence of associations and circles supporting workers. Leo XIII would publish a landmark document that addressed the labor and social issues in a clear and objective way: the encyclical Rerum Novarum.

4.2 Rerum Novarum (1891)

The encyclical granted the Catholic Church a sort of charter of citizenship. Undoubtedly, the encyclical was to Christian social action what the “Communist Manifesto” and Marx’s “Capital” were to socialist action. The document addresses the labor issue and outlines the basic principles of the Church’s Social Doctrine, which would later be revisited, expanded, and applied in successive documents and pronouncements by the Magisterium. This encyclical was the first ecclesiastical magisterial text to seriously study the social problems caused by industrialization. It simultaneously condemned both liberalism and socialism, but recognized the natural right to property and emphasized its social value, assigned the State the role of promoting the common good, both public and private, thus surpassing the social absolutism of the liberal State, and acknowledged the worker’s right to a fair wage. It condemned class struggle and accepted the worker’s right to organize in defense of their interests.

The encyclical was published 44 years after the appearance of Marx’s “Manifesto,” and seemingly did not have a major impact on the workers’ emancipation movement. It often used abstract language, did not analyze the real situation created by capitalism, nor did it present a structural analysis of the causes of working-class poverty. Despite these and other shortcomings, the document represents an important stance in the history of the Catholic Church.

These changes in the Church’s stance also brought challenges: many people even called for Leo XIII’s conversion, believing he had surrendered to Marxist ideas. On the other hand, in countries like France, Belgium, and Italy, a movement emerged known as Christian Democracy, combining apostolic aspirations, a desire for social reforms, and a political concern—not always clearly defined—but generally in favor of democracy.

5 Condemnation of Modernism and Inter-Church Reforms

5.1 Against Modernism

Modernism and its resulting crisis began during the time of Leo XIII, but reached its critical point during the pontificate of Pius X (1903–1914). This movement arose in liberal university environments. It developed a way of thinking that involved applying modern methods of scientific investigation to theology. The goal was to open Christianity to the philosophical and historical demands of contemporary society. One attempt to incorporate modernist thought was carried out in Maurice Blondel’s philosophical work, L’Action (1893).

The ideas of Modernism were applied to theology and Sacred Scripture. The propositions applied in the ecclesiological field tended to reduce the Church to a democratic form. Modernism was an attempt to reconcile the Catholic Church with the results achieved by historical criticism. In this sense, the Church was not seen as a hierarchy but as originating from collective consciousness, born not of divine will but of necessity—generated from the bottom up. Modernist propositions were censured by the Church, but found adherents to the extent that they distanced themselves from the project of Christendom. Some modernist authors had their works placed on the Index. Some reconciled with the Church, while others were excommunicated. Two prominent figures were the French priest Alfred Loisy (1857–1940) and the English Jesuit George Tyrrell (1861–1909). The former was excommunicated, interpreted Jesus’ preaching in an eschatological sense, denied the immutability and objective value of dogmas, diminished ecclesiastical authority, and preached total separation between faith and history. The latter claimed that one could remain within Catholicism on the condition of distinguishing between living faith and dead theology, between the real Church and the authority that governs it. He was expelled from the Society of Jesus and not accepted into any diocese. Later, he was excluded from the sacraments, though not excommunicated.

Through the encyclical Pascendi Dominici Gregis and the decree Lamentabili (1907), Pius X issued a strong condemnation of Modernism, suppressing any reconciliation of Christian doctrine with science and modern knowledge. A formal inquisition was launched against the perceived heresy of reformist theologians, particularly exegetes and historians. The works of Lagrange, Funk, Delehaye, and Duchesne were excluded from teaching. In 1910, seminary professors were required to take the Anti-Modernist Oath. Apostolic visitations were conducted in Italian seminaries, often resulting in harsh reports from the visitors. One of those evaluated was Angelo Roncalli, the future John XXIII.

5.2 Inter-Church Reforms

Pope Pius X was one of the great reformers of the Church. One of his major initiatives was the legislative organization of the Church through the Code of Canon Law. Its final presentation occurred in 1917, during the pontificate of Benedict XV. Other reforms took place in catechesis and liturgy. He organized a catechism of Christian doctrine. In the liturgy, he issued documents on sacred music (restoration of Gregorian chant), the breviary (harmonization of the breviary and liturgical year), and the Eucharist (frequent communion and lowered age for First Communion). Pius X was canonized by Pius XII in 1954.

6 Renewal Movements

The biblical, liturgical, and ecumenical movements were the entry points for the modern individual into the Church. They emerged in the 19th century and gained momentum in the 20th. The early roots of Vatican II also stem from these movements. The ecumenical movement, for instance, began outside the Catholic Church. In Edinburgh, Scotland, in 1910, Protestant missionaries organized a conference to explore possibilities and means of unity, aiming at a single Christian evangelization. Thus was born the ecumenical movement. In 1960, under Pope John XXIII, the Secretariat for the Promotion of Christian Unity was established, headed by the German Jesuit Cardinal Augustin Bea. The movement originated in the Protestant world for evangelization purposes and gained relevance in the Catholic Church as theologians embraced the project.

7 Catholicism and the World Wars

The pontificate of Benedict XV (1914–1922) occupies an intermediate and historically significant position in understanding modernity. The pope was involved in mediation efforts during World War I, but without success. The global chaos of the war (1914–1918) made it clear that the core values of modernity were in crisis: the absolutization of reason, progress, the nation, and industry. Complete faith in reason, progress, nationalism, capitalism, and socialism had failed. Europe was paying a high price due to the reactionary movements of fascism, Nazism, and communism. These movements idealized, in a modern fashion, race, class, and leaders, hindering the formation of a new and better world order.

World War I set in motion the global revolution that would become explicit after World War II: the shift from the Eurocentric paradigm of modernity, which bore colonialist, imperialist, and capitalist characteristics. The new paradigm that began to develop—postmodernity—would be global, polycentric, and ecumenically oriented. The Catholic Church recognized this only partially and somewhat late.

7.1 Interwar Period

The meaning of the pontificate of Pius XI (1922–1939), during the interwar period, must be understood in light of the political events of his time: a humanity oppressed by the totalitarian regimes born from mass society, and the deep ideological divisions that, especially during the civil war, led to Christian values and the Church being opposed and persecuted. His pontificate unfolded amidst the drama of major events that shaped the contemporary world: fascism, Nazism, and Stalinist totalitarianism. This entire context, to some extent, justified his policy of concordats, including the Lateran Pacts (1929) in Italy. His activities would be expressed in encyclicals such as: Non abbiamo bisogno (1931), Quadragesimo anno (1931), Mit brennender Sorge (1937), and later, the condemnation of atheistic communism in Divini Redemptoris (1937).

Catholic Action (a lay movement), organized during this pontificate, laid the groundwork for the preparation of the Second Vatican Council. Although that was its initial intent, the lay members of Catholic Action—students (JEC), university students (JUC), workers (JOC, ACO), rural communities (JAC), and members of the independent professions (JIC)—became deeply involved in their specific social settings, to the point that they brought the modern questions and reflections from these contexts into the Church. This lay engagement in the world, their political involvement, led to increased participation in Church life, demanding greater spiritual and theological formation. It was at this point that the laity confronted the challenges of modernity. Thinkers such as Yves Congar, Jacques Maritain, and Emmanuel Mounier developed theological reflections on the presence of Christian laypersons in both the Church and the world. All this thinking was marked by the signs of modernity.

In response to fascist measures enacted in Italy in June 1938, and as the Jewish question worsened in Germany, Pius XI entrusted American Jesuit Fr. John La Farge with the task of preparing a document on the unity of the human race, specifically to condemn racism and antisemitism. The draft reached the pope only at the end of 1938. The pope was already ill and would soon pass away, and the encyclical was never published. In Brazil, the encyclical (along with a long commentary) was published by Editora Vozes under the title “The Hidden Encyclical of Pius XI.”

7.2 Pius XII: Pastoral, Theology, and World War II

Pius XII (1939–1958) aimed to revive the project of a Christian civilization. Eugenio Pacelli, formerly nuncio in Munich, had a pontificate marked by extremes. This is explained by the stark contrast between his figure and policies and those of his successor, John XXIII (the “Pope of the Century”). Pius XII embodied the papacy in all its dignity and supremacy. He inherited from his predecessor a highly centralized Church. His actions took on new tones, especially regarding his relations with Germany and Nazism. In this regard, his pontificate was heavily criticized by some, who lamented the lack of public statements on the Holocaust, while others defended him, arguing that he did everything within his power through diplomatic channels.

The magisterium of Pius XII can be understood through his messages, speeches, and encyclicals. His pontificate may be considered the last of the medieval anti-modern era. It exhibited several authoritarian aspects: he rejected evolutionary, existentialist, and historicist doctrines, and their infiltration into Catholic theology had a major impact, leading to the censure of scholars such as Maritain, Congar, Chenu, De Lubac, Mazzolari, Milani, and the French worker-priests.

The global situation—and, in many respects, the internal life of the Church—was marked by a desire for change. Pius XII viewed reforms positively but tended toward excessive caution. His increasing concern with a Church involved in a world of upheaval and revolutionary tensions partly explains why he began concentrating governance in his own hands. Eugenio Pacelli saw the exposition of Church doctrine in response to the many problems of the modern world as his most important mission. He published a large number of encyclicals. The most notable were Mystici Corporis (1950) and Humani Generis (1950). The first addresses the identity and structure of the Church, clearly opposing the new theology. The second defines the pope’s position on the modern theory of evolution, rejecting certain hypotheses from the school of Teilhard de Chardin (without citing names). He paid special attention to Marian doctrine. In 1950, he proclaimed the dogma of the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary.

8 Transition and Renewal: The Christian Pope

8.1 John XXIII (1958–1963)

The pontificate of John XXIII was characterized by a prophetic ecclesiology and his pastoral approach in continuity with the Church’s tradition. His early pastoral gestures indicated a new direction for the Church. In 1959, he announced three ecclesial events: the Diocesan Synod of Rome, the revision of the Code of Canon Law, and a Council—Vatican II. His pontificate of aggiornamento marked a turning point due to his intuition in convening the Council.

Angelo Giuseppe Roncalli was born in the village of Sotto il Monte, in the province of Bergamo, Italy, on November 25, 1881, into a poor family of farmers. Young Roncalli studied the first two years of theology at the seminary in Bergamo, joining the Secular Franciscan Order in 1896 and professing its rule in May 1897. With a scholarship from his diocese, he attended the Pontifical Roman Seminary, where he was ordained a priest in August 1904 in Rome. In 1905, he was appointed secretary to the Bishop of Bergamo, Giacomo Radini Tedeschi, which allowed him to travel widely, make pastoral visits, and assist in numerous apostolic initiatives such as synods, the diocesan bulletin, and social works. He contributed to the diocesan Catholic newspaper and was chaplain of the Women’s Catholic Action. As a professor at the local seminary, he deepened his studies on three Catholic preachers: Saint Francis de Sales, Saint Gregory Barbarigo (then Blessed, later canonized by Roncalli in 1960), and Saint Charles Borromeo, whose visitation records in the diocese of Bergamo from 1575 he published. After the bishop’s death in 1914, Roncalli continued his priestly ministry in the diocese, where he had hoped to remain.

In 1915, Roncalli went to war to defend his country, having completed a year of military service during his seminary years in Rome. He was drafted as a medical sergeant and appointed military chaplain to wounded soldiers returning from the front lines, following Italy’s entry into the war after the Treaty of London on April 26, 1915, breaking from the Triple Alliance.

The second phase of his life began in 1921 when Pope Benedict XV (1914–1922) called him to serve on the Council for the Pontifical Mission Societies, of which he became president. This role required him to travel extensively across Italian dioceses organizing missionary circles. This Roman period and his seemingly peaceful life as a priest did not last long. Under Pope Pius XI (1922–1938), the priest from the small village of Sotto il Monte was consecrated a bishop in 1925 and appointed Apostolic Visitor to Bulgaria. In 1934, he was named Apostolic Delegate to Turkey and Greece, while also serving as administrator of the Apostolic Vicariate of Istanbul, where he stood out for his dialogue with Muslims and Orthodox Christians.

In 1944, Pius XII appointed Roncalli Apostolic Nuncio to Paris, with direct support from the pro-Secretary of State, Monsignor Montini. At the age of fifty-three, Roncalli was made a cardinal and two years later became Patriarch of Venice. At seventy-seven, he entered the conclave and was elected Pope John XXIII. His encyclical Pacem in Terris (1963) was the final act of a brief yet intense, dynamic, and impactful pontificate.

The pope’s death on June 3, 1963—Pentecost Sunday—was met with deep emotion across the Catholic world. This moment was strikingly different from other times: men and women from all nations and religions mourned his passing. John XXIII was canonized in April 2014 by Pope Francis.

8.2 Vatican II (1962–1965) and Its Relationship with Modernity

On October 11, 1962, John XXIII opened the first session of the Council. The opening text, Gaudet Mater Ecclesia, was of fundamental importance and deeply influenced the drafting of all the conciliar documents. Three points are especially noteworthy. First, the pope addresses prophets of doom, who see only decline and catastrophe in the modern world, behaving as though they have learned nothing from history. Second, the central focus of the Council: it was not merely to discuss one or another article of fundamental Church doctrine, repeating and proclaiming the teaching of ancient and modern theologians, which was already well known. If that were the goal, a Council would not have been necessary. Rather, the aim was a renewed, calm, and faithful adherence to the entire teaching of the Church. Third, while the Church had always opposed errors—sometimes with severe condemnations—it now sought to carry the light of religious truth with the attitude of a loving mother: kind, patient, and merciful even toward her estranged children.

Vatican II promulgated sixteen constitutions, decrees, and declarations. There is general agreement that the Dogmatic Constitution Lumen Gentium and the Pastoral Constitution Gaudium et Spes are the core of the Council. The Church had the courage to examine its past, reflect on it, and establish a new relationship with the present. The dialogue initiated and the fruits it bore continue to this day.

Two major figures led the Council: John XXIII, who died after the first session at age 82, and Paul VI (1963–1978), who succeeded him. Montini (Paul VI—beatified in 2014 by Pope Francis) took seriously the major task of continuing the Council, albeit with a different tone. Roncalli (John XXIII) was a shepherd, while Montini was a curial figure. Thus, post-conciliar analysis calls for reflection on both the advances and setbacks within the Council itself. Despite reforms in liturgy, the renewal of the Catholic Church, and the ecumenical dialogue with other Christian churches desired by John XXIII, the Council did not result in radical change but rather in stability. Historically, it was too soon, despite the open window, to witness absolute transformations in everyday Church life—opening the window, doors, dusting off furniture, and, most importantly, cleansing interior attitudes. Still, it was a significant step toward dialogue with modernity. At times, however, it returned to monologue.

8.3 Paul VI: Reformer and Misunderstood (1963–1978)

Pope Paul VI, Giovanni Battista Montini, was born in Concesio, near Brescia, in 1897. From a wealthy family, his devoutly Catholic mother was president of the Catholic Women’s Association of Brescia. His father, a doctor of law, writer, and founder of the newspaper “Il cittadino di Brescia,” served as president of the Catholic Electoral Union of Brescia and was a member of parliament for the Popular Party, of which he was a founding member. Ordained a priest in 1920, Montini studied canon law at the Gregorian University in Rome and, after passing an entrance exam, briefly became a professor.

Après ses travaux au sein du Secrétariat d’État du Saint-Siège, Montini fut nommé archevêque de Milan. Durant son épiscopat à Milan (1955-1963), il se rapprocha des ouvriers et des revendications de la gauche actives dans son archidiocèse, sans oublier ceux qui étaient éloignés de l’Église. L’un des événements les plus marquants qu’il organisa à Milan fut la Mission de Milan (5-24 novembre 1957). Ce fut une vaste œuvre pastorale mobilisant toute la grande ville. Préparée pendant deux ans, elle mobilisa 500 agents pastoraux, deux cardinaux, 24 évêques, et comprit sept mille interventions et conférences dans les églises, les usines, et les institutions culturelles. Le thème central de toutes les prédications était Dieu le Père. L’archevêque Montini y participa activement par la radio, des écrits et des conférences. Il chercha à mettre en œuvre une réforme pastorale favorisant le renouveau liturgique et encourageant la construction de nouvelles églises. Il consacra 72 églises durant son temps à Milan. Au moment de son élection pontificale, 19 autres églises étaient en construction.

Dès le lendemain de son élection, Paul VI annonça, par un message radiophonique, son intention de poursuivre le Concile. Il coordonna les trois sessions suivantes du Concile Vatican II.

D’Amérique latine, le pape reçut des dénonciations sur la condition déplorable des populations appauvries, vivant dans la misère, souvent sous des régimes dictatoriaux funestes soutenus par le capitalisme « démocratique » américain. Le pape ne resta pas indifférent à cette situation, publiant l’encyclique Populorum Progressio (1967), qui suscita un vif débat tant dans les milieux ecclésiaux qu’en dehors, notamment parmi les conservateurs de la Curie, qui estimaient que le pape s’était trop orienté à gauche, surtout en remettant en question la suprématie de la propriété privée au détriment des droits collectifs.

Le pape publia d’autres encycliques, mais celle qui suscita le plus de discussions fut Humanae Vitae (1968). Cette encyclique abordait une question hautement sensible dans la société : le contrôle des naissances. Jamais une encyclique n’avait provoqué autant de polémiques internes et externes. Le texte traite de la sexualité humaine, affirmant qu’elle ne doit pas être perçue comme un simple plaisir animal. L’incompréhension de ce document provient surtout d’une lecture réductrice, centrée sur l’interdiction de la pilule contraceptive, négligeant l’autre partie, hautement positive, valorisant la fonction créative de la sexualité, non seulement biologique, mais aussi personnaliste.

À Jérusalem (1964), il étreignit le patriarche Athénagoras dans un geste de dialogue avec tous les chrétiens. Lors du Congrès eucharistique de Bombay (Inde – 1964), il rencontra les fidèles catholiques. Il prononça un discours à l’ONU (1965) devant 117 délégués de divers pays, marquant ainsi le dialogue avec la société. Il célébra une messe à Fátima, au Portugal, en 1967, à l’occasion du 50^e anniversaire des apparitions mariales. Lors du Congrès eucharistique de Bogotá (1968), il ouvrit la II^e Conférence de l’Épiscopat latino-américain à Medellín, une rencontre avec les pauvres du Tiers Monde. Lors de la prière au Congrès œcuménique des Églises à Genève (1969), il embrassa tous les frères chrétiens des autres confessions.

La question de la collégialité fut pour Paul VI un enjeu fondamental, lié à une autre préoccupation majeure : l’œcuménisme. À ces questions internes s’ajoute un défi toujours d’actualité et avec lequel l’institution religieuse a encore du mal à composer : le dialogue avec la société. Pour avancer sur les thèmes abordés par Vatican II, le pape avait conscience qu’au sein de l’institution coexistaient deux pôles hautement conflictuels : nouveauté et tradition, vérité et charité, historicité et permanence, autorité et liberté, pouvoir et fraternité, supériorité et humilité, séparation du monde et unité avec le monde. Paul VI était pleinement conscient qu’il lui fallait réconcilier ces binômes. Il convient également de souligner que ce pontificat débuta durant une période conciliaire et se poursuivit difficilement dans les premières années de l’après-Concile.

Paul VI mourut le 6 août 1978 à Castel Gandolfo, à l’âge de 81 ans. Il fut inhumé dans la crypte de la basilique Saint-Pierre, dans une tombe modeste, comme il l’avait demandé dans son testament.

9 Le saint critiqué et son successeur

9.1 Jean-Paul II (1978-2005)

Karol Wojtyła, le pape Jean-Paul II, élu en 1978 après la mort soudaine de Jean-Paul Ier, dont le pontificat n’a duré que 33 jours, reçut l’héritage spirituel laissé par Paul VI ainsi que l’esprit pastoral du Concile Vatican II. Son long pontificat (1978-2005) est marqué par divers aspects, notamment religieux. Renforçant cette dimension religieuse, le pape lança la Nouvelle Évangélisation. Il rédigea 14 encycliques (dont 3 sociales), ainsi que de nombreux documents et catéchèses. Le Code de droit canonique (1983) et le Catéchisme de l’Église catholique furent l’apogée d’un processus amorcé et enrichi durant ce pontificat. Il formula de vives critiques tant à l’encontre du communisme totalitaire que du capitalisme. Il encouragea l’œcuménisme et le dialogue interreligieux. Il visita 114 pays, attirant des foules immenses. Le jubilé de l’an 2000 fut une célébration grandiose et un élan pour la nouvelle évangélisation.

Le pontificat de Wojtyła reçut aussi des critiques, comme celles du jésuite brésilien João Batista Libânio (2005), qui visèrent le Code et le Catéchisme, notamment en ce qu’ils n’ont pas su établir de ponts dans la continuité de Vatican II. Plusieurs théologiens exprimèrent leurs réserves à propos du Synode extraordinaire de 1985, convoqué pour évaluer Vatican II, mais perçu comme un retour à l’avant-Concile. Jean-Paul II fut critiqué, malgré son affirmation de la collégialité, pour sa centralisation, ayant pour pilier la Curie romaine, avec une ecclésiologie hiérarchique, au détriment de la réalisation concrète de l’Église Peuple de Dieu. Ont également été remis en question les restrictions imposées aux femmes dans les divers niveaux ministériels et la condamnation de nombreux théologiens. Un certain autoritarisme et cléricalisme réapparurent durant son pontificat, à l’encontre des orientations de Vatican II.

Le pape dut affronter de nombreuses souffrances personnelles liées à sa santé, notamment un attentat en 1981 sur la place Saint-Pierre. Sa santé connut de nombreuses périodes difficiles, provoquant une grande émotion parmi les fidèles dans les dernières années de son pontificat. Une foule immense assista à ses funérailles à Rome et demanda sa canonisation immédiate. Il fut canonisé en 2014, en même temps que Jean XXIII.

9.2 Benoît XVI (2005-2013)

Le successeur de Jean-Paul II fut son bras droit à la Curie romaine, le préfet de la Congrégation pour la Doctrine de la Foi, le cardinal allemand Joseph Ratzinger. Son élection par le conclave suscita de nombreuses réserves dans les milieux ecclésiastiques. Il fit face à de nombreuses difficultés et restera dans l’histoire comme le pape théologien et celui qui renonça.

Le 11 février 2013, au Vatican, dans la salle du Consistoire, Benoît XVI présida un consistoire public pour la canonisation de bienheureux. Ensuite, il lut une brève déclaration en latin, datée de la veille et signée de sa main, dans laquelle il annonçait sa décision de renoncer au pontificat pour raisons d’âge, précisant que le Siège de Pierre serait vacant à partir du 28 février à 20 heures. La déclaration, en 22 lignes, allait marquer un tournant historique pour l’Église. Sa renonciation fut un acte majeur, qui devint révolutionnaire. Benoît XVI a ainsi ancré la papauté dans les temps modernes.

Son pontificat fut extrêmement difficile. Il fut marqué par des obstacles, attaques, crises, scandales (pédophilie) et tensions dans le gouvernement de la Curie romaine, avec carriérisme et luttes internes. Ses quelques années de pontificat furent marquées par d’autres controverses : les relations avec les évêques lefebvristes ; l’autorisation de la messe en latin par le Motu Proprio Summorum Pontificum (2007), ravivant la prière pour la conversion des juifs ; les débats autour des herméneutiques de Vatican II ; le discours de Ratisbonne (Allemagne, 2006) ; le cas Richard Williamson de la Fraternité Saint-Pie X, excommunié par Jean-Paul II et réhabilité par le pape Ratzinger ; les notifications de la Congrégation pour la Doctrine de la Foi à divers théologiens, parmi lesquels Roger Haight, Jon Sobrino, Jacques Dupuis, Peter Phan, Torres Queiruga, José Antonio Pagola.

Certains projets initiés par Benoît XVI ont été interrompus, de la « réforme de la réforme » de la liturgie aux relations avec les lefebvristes, en passant par le dialogue œcuménique. L’affaire Vatileaks, survenue durant la dernière année de son pontificat, a mis en lumière une réalité complexe, qui ne se limite certainement pas à la trahison du majordome Paolo Gabriele, lequel avait transmis des documents confidentiels à des tiers non autorisés, ensuite publiés. C’est dans ce contexte que le pape Benoît XVI renonce et que, simultanément, est élu Jorge Mario Bergoglio, le pape François. Son élection (2013) semble évoquer cette vision vieille de huit siècles : « Va François, et répare mon Église en ruine ». Sa mission, confiée par les cardinaux électeurs, est de redorer l’image ternie de l’Église.

10 Le retour au christianisme : François

Élu en 2013, François est le premier pape jésuite et latino-américain (Argentine) en vingt siècles d’histoire de l’Église catholique. Son nom constitue un programme pour son pontificat : proximité avec les pauvres et engagement pour le renouveau de l’Église. Le cardinal Bergoglio est né en 1936, dans le quartier de Flores, au cœur de Buenos Aires. En 1957, il entre dans la Compagnie de Jésus. Ses années d’études en théologie et philosophie se déroulent en Argentine et au Chili. Il est ordonné prêtre en décembre 1969. On ne peut le qualifier de grand carriériste : il fut provincial des jésuites d’Argentine de 1973 à 1979. De 1980 à 1986, il dirigea la Faculté de Théologie de San Miguel. En 1992, il est nommé évêque auxiliaire de l’archidiocèse de Buenos Aires, alors dirigé par le cardinal Antonio Quarracino. Après la mort de ce dernier en 1998, Bergoglio devient archevêque de Buenos Aires. Il est créé cardinal par Jean-Paul II en 2001. Le 13 mars 2013, à 16h30, au quatrième tour de scrutin dans la chapelle Sixtine, au Vatican, il est élu pape. François est confronté à une mission immense, non seulement par le service lui-même, mais aussi par les grandes difficultés que traverse l’institution. Ce sont des défis que le pape jésuite connaît bien ; il est important de semer la graine, mais il n’est pas nécessaire d’en récolter les fruits immédiatement. François affirme : « Je me méfie des décisions prises de manière précipitée » (SPADARO, 2013, p.11). Durant sa première année de pontificat, il publie l’encyclique Lumen Fidei, commencée par Benoît XVI.

En ces temps de néolibéralisme, rien n’est plus actuel que de formuler des enseignements sociaux dans des contextes sans cesse renouvelés, et de les proclamer de manière prophétique et critique. Le pape François, préoccupé par l’inachèvement du Concile Vatican II, affirme que le commandement « tu ne tueras point » établit une limite claire pour garantir la valeur de la vie humaine. Ainsi, aujourd’hui, nous devons dire « non à une économie de l’exclusion et de l’inégalité sociale » (Evangelii Gaudium, n.53). L’exhortation apostolique Evangelii Gaudium, publiée en 2013, a suscité un vaste débat à travers le monde. Certains y voient un grand progrès en matière sociale, tandis que d’autres, notamment des entrepreneurs américains, se sont montrés très mécontents des critiques adressées au capitalisme – critiques déjà formulées par Jean-Paul II. Dans ce texte, François dénonce que « l’être humain est lui-même considéré comme un bien de consommation que l’on peut utiliser puis jeter » (EG n.53). Il s’agit donc d’une déclaration forte, et d’un besoin de mise à jour du Concile Vatican II, valorisant la dignité de la personne et affirmant sans crainte un non retentissant à la sacralisation du marché. Non à l’argent qui gouverne au lieu de servir.

Ce que le pape met en œuvre était un rêve de Jean XXIII : que l’Église sorte du cadre de Vatican II et se rapproche réellement des pauvres, afin qu’ils se sentent chez eux en son sein. Pourtant, dans les documents du Concile, les pauvres semblent s’être égarés. Les appauvris ne peuvent être écartés de la vision d’une Église fidèle aux inspirations de Vatican II. Ce thème reste évangéliquement d’actualité, bien qu’il ait souvent été passé sous silence dans la société et même au sein de certains secteurs ecclésiaux.

Le pape a démontré sa capacité à dialoguer avec les juifs, les musulmans et les fidèles d’autres confessions religieuses, dans une perspective d’ecclésiologie missionnaire : une Église en sortie, tournée vers la société et au service de l’humanité. Une Église capable d’écoute et de promouvoir une inculturation urgente de la foi, laquelle a été freinée ces dernières années par une trop grande centralisation.

Un événement historique et emblématique marquant le début de son pontificat fut la célébration de la XXVIIIe Journée mondiale de la jeunesse (juillet 2013), à Rio de Janeiro – Brésil. Ses discours, homélies, gestes et la présence massive des fidèles ont révélé la relation qui caractérise déjà ce pontificat : une proximité avec le peuple, non seulement dans les paroles, mais aussi dans une saine rébellion face à sa propre sécurité personnelle. Il a visité les périphéries de la « cidade maravilhosa » et célébré au Sanctuaire d’Aparecida do Norte, à São Paulo. Il a rencontré les Argentins dans la cathédrale Saint-Sébastien de Rio de Janeiro. Partout où il est passé, il a laissé le signe d’un évêque de Rome différent, sur les traces de François d’Assise, en quête de réformes et d’une Église missionnaire. Cette même année, il visita encore en Italie Cagliari, Assise, ainsi que le lieu emblématique de Lampedusa, où il prit la parole sur la tragédie mondiale de l’immigration et les nombreuses morts en mer, notamment lors du naufrage d’Africains.

En 2014, le pape a visité la Turquie, Tirana (Albanie), le Parlement européen, la Corée du Sud et la Terre Sainte. En Italie, ses visites comprenaient Redipuglia, Caserte, Campobasso, Bojano, Isernia-Venafro et Cassano allo Ionio. Il convoqua et participa au Synode extraordinaire sur la famille en 2014, qui trouva sa continuité et son achèvement en octobre 2015. En 2015, il visita les Philippines, où plus de six millions de personnes assistèrent à la messe célébrée à Manille, ainsi que le Sri Lanka ; l’Équateur, la Bolivie, le Paraguay, la Bosnie, Cuba, les États-Unis et l’Organisation des Nations Unies (ONU). En novembre, il visita également le Kenya, l’Ouganda et la République centrafricaine. En Italie, il visita cette même année Prato, Florence, Turin, Pompéi et Naples.

« Lorsque j’insiste sur la frontière, je fais particulièrement référence à la nécessité pour l’homme de culture d’être inséré dans le contexte dans lequel il opère et sur lequel il réfléchit. Il y a toujours le danger de vivre dans un laboratoire », affirme François, ajoutant : « Notre foi n’est pas une foi de laboratoire, mais une foi de chemin, une foi historique. Dieu s’est révélé comme histoire, non comme un recueil de vérités abstraites… Il faut vivre à la frontière » (SPADARO, 2013, p. 33-34).

Dans une autre encyclique de 2015, Laudato Si’ – Loué sois-tu, sur la sauvegarde de la maison commune, le pape offre une réflexion magistrale sur les débats autour de l’écologie intégrale. Le texte analyse l’état actuel de la planète (pollution, climat, eau, biodiversité, détérioration de la vie et dégradation sociale). Il aborde ensuite la Création et examine la racine humaine de la crise écologique. C’est sans aucun doute un document du magistère apportant une contribution majeure et des critiques au système économique générateur des crises écologiques globales.

Dans sa bulle Misericordiae Vultus (2015), il convoque l’Année Sainte du Jubilé extraordinaire de la Miséricorde, célébrée du 8 décembre 2015 (fête de l’Immaculée Conception) au 20 novembre 2016 (fête du Christ-Roi).

Ney de Souza, PUC São Paulo

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