Summary
1 Introduction
2 The Carolingian Renaissance: Background
2.1 Coronation of Charlemagne and the Renovatio Imperii
2.2 The Carolingian Reform
3 Background to the Gregorian Reform
3.1 The Gregorian Reform
4 Dissenters, Heretics and Orthodox in the 11thâ13th centuries: Context
4.1 Orthodox
4.2 Heretics
4.2.1 Waldensians
4.2.2 Cathars
5 Mendicants
5.1 Franciscans
5.2 Dominicans
5.3 Originality of Francis and Dominic
6 Bibliographic References
1 Introduction
Since its origin, the Church has been marked by moments of crisis that demanded reform efforts. The well-known phrase Ecclesia semper reformanda est synthesizes this idea. In the 8th century, with the rise of the Franks and due to the close union between powers, the ruler took the initiative for reform. Charlemagne is the protagonist of what became known as the Carolingian Renaissance. The decline of the empire from the mid-9th century also affected the Church. From the 10th century onward, a desire for renewal, arising from various sectorsâmainly monastic lifeâwould culminate in what would become known as the Gregorian Reform. Between the 11th and 13th centuries, laypeople, clergy, orthodox and heretics, driven by the complex transformations that marked medieval society, would raise their voices for reforms in the Church and society. The mendicants would be an effective response to this call.
2 The Carolingian Renaissance: Background
In the transformations caused by the invasions in the West from the 6th century onward, many bishops became multifaceted leaders, combining religious functions with political and social roles, and forming alliances with the new âholders of power.â These were the early steps toward what would become the âmedieval Christendomâ (LE GOFF, 1983, p.60). The baptism of Clovis (496) marks the beginning of the rise of the Franks in the West. The Church saw in this alliance the possibility of creating the Kingdom of God on earth, inspired by Augustineâs Civitas Dei. The actions of Charlemagne (747â814), king of the Franks from 768, were marked by a series of political, cultural, and religious reforms known as the Carolingian Renaissance. These reforms must be understood in light of the close relationship between the Roman Church and the Frankish rulers, which reached its peak under Charlemagneâs rule.
The Frankish king Carloman and Bishop Boniface, in alignment with the Bishop of Rome, Zachary (741â752), had undertaken a reform of the Church in the kingdom, fighting abuses and ensuring the proper observance of Christian precepts. In a society still strongly tied to pagan rites, the king was expected, like a priest, to safeguard the salvation of the people entrusted to him. Since the time of Pepin the Short, bishops and abbots, along with lay nobles, held prominent positions in royal administration. A âGermanic Councilâ was held in 742 or 743, âaiming at the salvation of Godâs people.â The effectiveness of this salvation depended on the harmony between the rulers and the See of Peter.
2.1 Coronation of Charlemagne and the Renovatio Imperii
The rise of Charlemagne consolidated the long process of the âreplacementâ of the Merovingian dynasty by the Carolingian, but his objective was the restoration of the Empire in the West. For this, the alliance between the throne and the altar was essential. His coronation in Rome as âKing of the Romansâ by Pope Leo III, on Christmas night in the year 800, symbolized the rebirth of the ancient Empire. The coronation took the form of an episcopal consecration. Anointed with the same âholy oilâ that, according to tradition, had anointed Clovis, Charles saw himself as a new Constantine and his would be the new Roman Empire. In response to the protests of the Easterners, whose throne in the year 800 was occupied by a woman, Charlemagneâs successors would claim for the Carolingian Empire âthe full legitimacy to proclaim itself the Roman Empire, based on the concept of the translatio of imperial power from the Romans to the Franksâ (GASPARRI, SALVO & SIMONI, 1992, p.378). In the Carolingian conception of power, Church and State were not separate realities. Acting as head of the kingdom and of the Church, Charles saw himself in fact as king and priest, Vicar of Christ just like the Pope. In the assemblies of the kingdom, civil and religious authorities discussed political and ecclesiastical matters. Resolutions concerning liturgy, morals, education, and clergy discipline, appointment of bishops and abbots were turned into imperial laws.
2.2 The Carolingian Reform
Charles continued Pepinâs project, but went further, conceiving a plan that would reshape culture, religion, and knowledge. For this, he relied on the greatest exponents of Western culture. The palace at Aachen became the seat of Carolingian knowledge and of the âpalatine sagesâ: poets, writers, scientists, historians, men celebrated for their knowledge and intelligence in various fieldsâPaul the Deacon, the layman Einhard, Theodulf of OrlĂ©ans, Peter of Pisa, were among these men. The Englishman Alcuin, a monk from York and one of the most cultured men of his time, was placed at the head of the palace school and became the main mentor of the reform (GARCIA-VILLOSLADA, 1986, p.262â8).
In 789, with the Admonitio Generalis, a set of norms prepared by Alcuin in view of the reform, Charles ordered the opening of schools throughout the kingdom, in monasteries, bishoprics, and rural areas. The aim of the reforms was initially to prepare pastors so they could properly instruct the people, but also to benefit the Carolingian nobility educated in these schools. Clergy were to learn Latin to correctly celebrate the liturgy; they had to know by heart at least the Creed and the Our Father, understand the prayers of the Mass and the Psalms, and be able to âreadâ homilies and parts of Scripture. Those who were not sufficiently instructed would be deposed. Clergy were to be educated but also virtuous: celibate, avoiding hunting and warfare (GATTO, 1995, p.153â6). In a letter to the Abbot of Fulda, Charles stated that he received letters from monks full of devotion but âin crude style and full of errors due to their negligence in being educated.â He also said he needed men who had both âthe will and the ability to learn and the will to teach others. We wish that you be, as befits soldiers of the Church, first devout and then wiseâ (Pedrero-SĂĄnchez, 1999, p.170â1).
Alcuin developed a curriculum for the monastery and cathedral schools, proposing the study of the liberal arts as preparatory for the study of the Bible. The illegible Merovingian script was replaced by the Carolingian minuscule. The monasteries became important centers of culture. In addition to teaching, in the scriptoria ancient codices were copied, with miniatures and illuminations. Charles also encouraged the adoption of the Rule of St. Benedict for monks and canonical life for secular priests. The Roman liturgy became the reference for celebrations in the kingdom. Charles obtained from Pope Adrian (772â795) a Gregorian sacramentary as a model for the liturgy. His best singers were sent to the papal chapel in Rome to learn Gregorian chant and spread it throughout the kingdom.
Regarding the faithful, tithing was required, along with Sunday Mass attendance, Sunday rest, and participation in the sacraments, especially the Eucharist at certain times of the year. This required better organization of parishes and dioceses. Pilgrimages, veneration of relics and saints were gradually encouraged. The reforming spirit also influenced painting, architecture, and decorative arts. The cathedral of Aachen is a testimony to the high artistic spirit that marked this period.
The Carolingian Renaissance marks the pinnacle of the rapprochement between the Church of Rome and the Frankish sovereigns. Charlemagne embodied the model of the king-priest. The reforms were continued by his successor, Louis the Pious, spreading throughout the West a cultural renewal based on the Christian mindset. The emergence of the Universities, the improvement in the intellectual and moral level of the clergy and religious, the preservation of the rich literary heritage of the Greco-Roman world, would be some of the fruits of this renaissance. From the 11th century onward, a new awareness about the nature and identity of the Churchâdistinct from temporal powersâbegan to emerge and gain ground, especially in monasteries, giving rise to what would be known as the Gregorian Reform.
3 Antecedents to the Gregorian Reform
The expression âGregorian Reform,â which owes its name to Pope Gregory VII (1073â1085), became, from the mid-20th century onward, the subject of a true âhistoriographical revision,â given the richness of nuances that this historical period offers to scholars (Rust, Silva & FRAZĂO, 2009, p.135â52; RUST, 2014). Political turmoil, invasions, and new social demands marked the West from the mid-9th century. In 962, the coronation of Emperor Otto I by the Pope gave new impetus to political and ecclesiastical institutions, as well as to intellectual and cultural activities, to the point that this period was called a ânew renaissanceâ (Verger, 1997, p.13â26; LE GOFF, 1983, p.53).
With the advent of Otto, the alliance between political power and the clergy grew stronger. The sovereign had the right to invest clerics and grant them benefices. This was not a priestly ordination, but the emperor, through âinvestiture,â granted the elected candidate civil and religious office, symbolized by the bestowal of the ring and the crozier. By the end of the 10th century, bishop-counts and abbots enjoyed immense power, true feudal lords, whose positions were granted not for their moral merits but for their loyalty to the sovereign. This gave rise to abuses. The most serious problems were nicolaitism (clergy who were married or in concubinage, with children), and simony, when bishoprics, monasteries, and abbeys (the ecclesiastical benefices) were granted in exchange for payment. In Rome, the situation was not much better, with Roman nobles violently competing for the See of Peter.
In the 11th century, signs of discontent with this politico-ecclesiastical model began to appear. Monasteries, being less subject to interference from temporal power, became privileged spaces for reflecting on the need for reform. Cluny (910), Brogne (929), Gorze (933) are just a few of these monasteries, known for their strict discipline and serious adherence to the Rule of Saint Benedict, which, under excellent abbots, had beneficial effects throughout the Church. Gregory VII (1073â1085), the central figure of the Gregorian Reform, was close to the Cluniac movement. Urban II (1088â1099), one of the greatest medieval popes, came from the ranks of Cluny. Peter the Venerable and the monk and cardinal Humbert, advisors to the popes, were Cluniac monks.
Gradually, the perception grew that simony, nicolaitism, and lay investitures were intrinsically connected issues, conditioning and limiting the Churchâs actions, and thereby disfiguring its true nature. Even before the outbreak led by Gregory VII, several bishops and popes had fought against these evils. Surrounding themselves with collaborators enthusiastic for reform, they convened synods, visited dioceses, and defended the autonomy and freedom of the Church.
3.1 The Schism of 1054
The period of the Gregorian Reform is also marked by the split between the Eastern and Western Church, known as the Schism of 1054. With the rise of Michael Cerularius as Patriarch of Constantinople (1043â1054), and with reforms in the Westâparticularly concerning celibacyâthe differences between Latins and Greeks, which had been latent since the 8th century, became more pronounced. After repressive measures against Latin Christians by Michael, including the closure of churches, Cardinal Humbert of Silva Candida wrote the treatise Adversus graecorum calumnias, signed by Pope Leo IX (1049â1054). In a polemical tone, the text defended papal primacy, arguing based on the Donatio Constantini, which was unknown to the Greeks. At the request of the Byzantine Emperor, a Roman delegation went to Constantinople to initiate dialogue. However, Cardinal Humbert, head of the delegation, acted more like a judge than a messenger of peace. His harsh and threatening tone led Michael Cerularius to refuse participation in the discussions. After a few months, Humbert and the others, having received news of Leo IX’s death, deposited on July 16, 1054, a bull of excommunication against the Patriarch and his followers on the altar of the Church of Hagia Sophia before departing. In response, the Patriarch convened a synod at the same church and, on July 24, also excommunicated Cardinal Humbert and the other delegates, burning the bull. Although doctrinal and disciplinary differences were serious, the tragic outcome was also the result of a long process of cultural estrangement and the intransigent spirit of the two main protagonists.
3.2 The Gregorian Reform
In 1049, a synod in the city of Reims, promoted by Pope Leo IX (1049â1054), strongly condemned lay investiture. In 1059, Humbert of Silva Candida, in the work Adversus Simoniacos, also denied kings the right of investiture. Gradually, a new concept in the relationship between the Church and the empire was taking hold, pointing toward a new definition of the Church itself: a separation between the sacredness of the clergy and the secularity of the laity. The latter were to be excluded from any direct intervention in ecclesiastical matters. In fact, this conception was based on the idea that the Supreme Pontiff should be at the top of society, not the emperor.
As soon as he took office, Gregory VII reaffirmed the reform measures. His Dictatus Papae, a true reformist manifesto, clearly stated his conception of the nature of the Church: the pope, as the highest authority, could depose the emperor through excommunication. He could also release subjects from their oath of loyalty to an unjust sovereign (Pedrero-SĂĄnchez, 1999, p.128â9).
In 1075, Henry IV (1050â1106), before being crowned emperor, appointed a bishop to the See of Milan, even though it was not vacant. Threatened with excommunication, Henry reacted by appointing three more bishops and declared that Gregory, the âfalse monk,â was deposed. Gregory excommunicated him. Harsh treatises followed on both sides. Henryâs vassals, taking advantage of the situation, abandoned him. Isolated, the king went to Canossa, where the pope was traveling through Germany. There, in 1077, after performing penance, he asked for and received the popeâs forgiveness. Back in Germany, with tensions eased, Henry convened a council in 1080, where he reaffirmed the imperial prerogatives regarding lay investitures and appointed the antipope Gilbert, Archbishop of Ravenna (Clement III â 1080â1100). He then invaded Rome. Gregory VII took refuge in Salerno, where he died in 1085.
The controversy engaged canonists, who sought solutions to the impasse. Gregory’s successors continued the path of reform but were more realistic and open to dialogue. Pope Paschal II sought an agreement with Henry V on the occasion of his coronation in 1111, but the future emperor imprisoned the pope and several cardinals, managing to extract from them the right of investiture with ring and crozier, as well as the coronation. Henry V was excommunicated, but the path to resolution was already open.
The Concordat of Worms (1122) proposed a solution to the controversy. With the delivery of the ring and the crozier, the Church invested the elected individual with ecclesiastical office. The appointment, however, was to take place in the presence of the emperor or his representative. The latter, in turn, granted the chosen one temporal power by handing over the sceptre (Pedrero-SĂĄnchez, 1999, p.132). At the First Lateran Council in 1123, the Concordat of Worms was reconfirmed. Although the Concordat did not end the conflicts between Church and empire, it laid the legal foundations for the delimitation of temporal and spiritual powers. On the other hand, the Church increasingly came to be identified with the clergy and the pope, while secular powers gradually became aware of their own autonomy.
4 Opponents, Heretics, and Orthodox in the 11thâ13th Centuries: Context
From the late 11th century to the mid-13th century, monks, laypeople, and clerics appeared throughout the West who, with renewed zeal and vigor, advocated a return to the Gospel and the early Church. The effort to âfollow the naked Christâ was expressed through community life, preaching, and voluntary poverty. âRenunciation of the world, followed by isolation in a life of prayer, ceased to be the only path to salvationâ (Bolton, 1986, p.14). Some of these groups, initially suspected of heresy, managed to integrate into the Church, renewing it from within. Others, more radical, questioned doctrine and ended up being persecuted and eliminated. Preaching, forbidden to laypeople, was the main point of conflict. A third group defended essentially heretical theses and was opposed by the Church from the outset. The bull Ad Abolendam of 1184 prescribed excommunication for âcounts, barons, rectors, and consuls of cities and other placesâ who did not commit to repressing heresy. Their lands would be placed under interdict (Merlo, 1989, p.86).
The emergence of these movements is due to several factors, including the reforming momentum of the Gregorian Reform, early urbanization, the rise of the bourgeoisie and commerce with increased wealth circulation, and the intensification of social problems that challenged the old feudal system. Culturally, there was also a new flourishing, with the rise of universities, the spread of new ideas, and the expansion of horizons through pilgrimages and crusades. Jacques Verger states that âit is indisputable that the 12th century was, with greater or lesser precocity and intensity, (…) practically throughout the West, a time of cultural mutation and impulseâ (VERGER, 2001, p.17). These are just a few contextual elements that created fertile ground for the emergence of these dissenting groups. Added to this is the fact that, in contrast to a group of people yearning for an exemplary evangelical and Christian life, there was a powerful, rich, and worldly Church, incapable of meeting the aspirations of these sectors (Falbel, 1976, p.14â15).
4.1 Orthodox
Among the protagonists of reform were several clergy members. Vital of Savigny (+1123), Bernard of Tiron (1046â1117), Stephen of Muret (1045±â1124), Robert of Arbrissel (1047â1117), Norbert of Xanten (1080±â1134), among others, had in common that, renouncing a comfortable and successful life, they left everything behind to live an austere life of poverty, prayer, and penance. In addition, they were great preachers and attracted followers. Despite conflicts with ecclesiastical authorities, they remained in the Church and promoted reform, founding monasteries that became major centers of spirituality.
Some lay-origin reform movements also managed to integrate into the Church. Among them were the Humiliati of Lombardy, from northern Italy, divided into three groups: a community of men, another of women, and people living with their families. They lived by the work of their own hands and sought to strictly observe the evangelical precepts and voluntary poverty. Those living in community were also to observe chastity. They cared for the sick and the poor and also engaged in preaching. Condemned in 1184, they appealed to Innocent III and, after drafting a brief rule, were approved by him in 1201.
4.2 Heretics
In the Middle Ages, the line between dissent within the limits of orthodoxy and heresy was very thin. Some preachers, in their desire for reform, advanced new and radical doctrines, not necessarily heretical, but they ended up clashing with authorities. In the early 12th century, the hermit Henry of Lausanne stood out. Invited to preach by the Bishop of Le Mans in 1116, he stirred listeners so intensely that they attacked the clergy. Expelled by the bishop, he continued his itinerant preaching. Arrested in 1135 and sent to Cluny, he escaped but was eventually captured and died in prison after 1145.
Peter of Bruys was another itinerant preacher who, with radicalism and violence, denied all material aspects of religion in favor of a spiritual Church. He incited his listeners to attack priests, desecrate churches, remove crucifixes, and burn them. In 1132, a popular reaction burned him at the stake he himself had lit. Other clerics who led protest movements could be cited, such as Tanchelm, assassinated in 1115 by another priest; Eon of Stella, who died in prison in 1150; or Canon Arnold of Brescia, who preached a poor and pilgrim Church and was hanged and burned in Rome in 1155.
4.2.1 Waldensians
Around 1175, after a religious crisis, the prosperous merchant of Lyon, Peter Waldo (±1140â1217), also known as Valdes of Lyon, obtained a translation of the Gospels and other New Testament writings, abandoned his family, donated his goods to the poor, and became an itinerant preacher. His followers, known as Waldensians or the Poor of Lyon, lived in poverty, in community, and in chastity. Peter preached a return to the Gospel but also criticized unworthy clergy and some Church practices. He claimed that his calling came not from the Church, but from God Himself. A contemporary described them: âThey have no home of their own, walking in pairs, barefoot, without provisions; they hold everything in common, like the apostles, and follow the naked Christâ (Falbel, 1977, p.106). Forbidden to preach by the bishop of Lyon, they appealed to Rome in 1179, where the Third Lateran Council was being held. The movement was approved, on the condition that they seek authorization from the bishops to preach. Since the bishops denied it and they continued preaching, they were excommunicated in 1184. From then on, the movement took on increasingly heterodox contours in doctrine, with harsher attacks on religious authorities and the creation of its own hierarchy with bishops, priests, and deacons. A split in the movement occurred in 1210, which deepened after Peter’s death in 1217. Two groups reconciled with the Church: the Poor Catholics, led by Durand of Huesca, and the group led by Bernard Prim (Bolton, 1986, p.66â70). Of all the medieval heretical movements, the Waldensians were the only one to survive into modern times, later joining the Protestant Reformation.
4.2.2 Cathars
The Cathars (from the Greek kataroi, âpure onesâ) were, from their emergence in the 11th century, identified as heretics (Falbel, 1976, p.36â37). They were also known as Albigensians due to their strong presence in the city of Albi, France, and in the Languedoc region (THOUZELLIER, 1969). Besides elements common to other heretical movements, they stood out for their pronounced dualism, which radically opposed Catholic doctrine: they accepted only the New Testament, denied Christâs humanity, and rejected the Eucharist. They blessed the bread themselves during their meals. They denied the historical evolution of the Church, considering the early Church as the true one. The Cathars had followers among the feudal elite and gradually occupied an important place in society. They were combated at first through public debates. St. Bernard and St. Dominic were the Churchâs main representatives, with limited success. They were condemned in 1184 by the bull Ad Abolendam and again in 1199 by Vergentis in Senium. In 1209, a crusade was proclaimed against them.
5 The Mendicants
In the context of these reform movements, some groups emerged who, by living off alms, were called âmendicants.â Two of these stood out as catalysts for the reformist aspirations expressed up to that point, becoming the papacyâs most important allies in curbing heresy and spreading reform ideals: âAt that time (…) in a world already growing old, two religious orders were born in the Church, whose youth is renewed like the eagleâs: the Friars Minor and the Preachersâ (TEIXEIRA, 2004, p.1431).
5.1 Franciscans
Son of a wealthy merchant from Assisi, Francis (1181/2â1226) initially sought success in warfare, but after a conversion, he began to live evangelical poverty as a penitent and itinerant preacher, quickly attracting followers. Francis especially loved evangelical poverty, but fraternity also became a distinctive mark of his movement: âAnd after the Lord gave me brothers, (…) the Most High Himself revealed to me that I should live according to the form of the Holy Gospelâ (Teixeira, 2004, p.189). His model was not the Church of the apostles, but Christ Himself. On the other hand, he did not attack the clergy and showed reverent respect for the Church and its hierarchy (BARROS, 2012, p.177). The coherence between his preaching and his life attracted followers. In early 1209, Francis submitted a way of life to Pope Innocent III, which was orally approved, allowing them to engage in exhortative preaching: the Order of Friars Minor was founded. In 1212, the young Clare of Assisi joined the group. The Poor Clares, living in cloister, became the female branch of Franciscanism. Men and women, celibate and married, also joined the âfraternity,â following their own rule. The definitive Franciscan rule was approved in 1223. Francis sent his disciples on mission throughout the West, and inevitable institutional and disciplinary problems arose. When he died in 1226, the Order was rapidly expanding, but the friars faced a crossroads: to remain faithful to the founderâs ideals and those of his first companions, or to embrace the missions the Church was gradually assigning them. As the âminorsâ assumed positions of power and leadership, âholy povertyâ was inevitably called into question. Throughout the 13th and 14th centuries, the Order would undergo significant evolution, becoming one of the main pillars of the Churchâs mission.
5.2 Dominicans
Dominic of GuzmĂĄn (1175â1221), a noble Spanish cleric, after a journey to Germany with his bishop, Diego de Acebes, was struck by the spread of heresy. Returning to Spain in 1206, disturbed by the ostentation and excessive luxury of the papal legatesâcontrasting with the poverty and frugality of the heretics they unsuccessfully tried to convertâthey commented to the legates: âThis is not the way, brothers, in my view… with such a contrary example you will build little, destroy much, and gain nothingâ (GELABERT & MILAGRO, 1947, p.172â3). The two decided to preach in poverty and itinerancy in the Languedoc region of southern France, known for being a stronghold of heresy. In 1207, a group converted in MontrĂ©al. That same year, they founded a community in Prouille to welcome converted Cathar women. Diego also achieved an important victory in Palmiers by converting the Poor Catholics, Waldensians led by Durand of Huesca. After Diego’s death, Dominic formed a small community of preachers, approved at the Fourth Lateran Council as the Order of Preachers, following the Rule of Saint Augustine. Dominic completed the Constitutions in 1221, emphasizing both individual and communal poverty. The Preachers dedicated themselves to study in major university centers to prepare for preaching. Their austere lifestyle and apostolic fervor attracted new members. Some womenâs communities also joined the Order. When Dominic died in 1221, the Order was already in full expansion.
5.3 Originality of Francis and Dominic
Dominic and Francis managed to provide a âCatholicâ response to the reformist aspirations arising everywhere. Unlike traditional religious orders, both showed openness to the world they aimed to evangelize (LAWERENCE, 1998, p.9; LITTLE, 1978, pp.168â9). Mobility was one of their main characteristics. Although Francis created an original rule and Dominic had to adopt the Augustinian rule, both foundations were built upon the desire to dedicate themselves fully to the salvation of Christians through apostolic, poor, and itinerant preaching. Thus, even though they lived in communities, âthe world was their cloister.â Unlike Francis, who showed reservations toward academic studies, Dominic demanded an ideal academic formation for his friars to support their preaching. Even during Francisâs lifetime, however, his friars began to enter the academic world, and gradually members of both Orders would be found side by side in universitiesâsometimes defending the same ideals, sometimes in opposing camps, but always seeking to meet the Churchâs urgent needs.
Friar Sandro Roberto da Costa, OFM. Theological Institute of PetrĂłpolis, RJ. Original text in Portuguese
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