Summary
1 Definition
2 Sources
3 Phases of Research
4 Historical Context
5 Jesus Before His Public Ministry
6 Sovereignty of God
7 Organization of the JM
8 Consequences of Divine Sovereignty
8.1 Spirituality
8.2 Healings
8.3 Economy
8.4 Power
9 The Trial of Jesus
10 Bibliographical References
1 Definition
The term “Jesus Movement” (JM) has been established in biblical research primarily from impulses originating in sociology and cultural anthropology. The concept expresses a religious movement within Judaism, which had as its central reference the person of Jesus of Nazareth and the proclamation of the sovereignty of God. Although it can be distinguished from other Jewish movements or groups, the activity of the JM was not in opposition to Judaism. Jesus did not see himself as the founder of a new religion. The separation from Judaism and the development of Christianity had their origins in post-Easter events.
The definition of JM can vary, as well as its temporal delimitation. Besides the period of Jesus’ public ministry, it is possible to include the early years of the Jerusalem proto-community and the activity of itinerant missionary groups. Here we will restrict the JM to the period of Jesus’ public ministry until his death. It is not possible to determine exactly the period and duration of this activity. Indications in the gospels, such as the occurrence of seasons of the year and the feast of Passover, point to a period between one and three years.
2 Sources
The proclamation and actions related to the JM are witnessed almost exclusively in the gospels. In the Pauline letters, direct references to Jesus’ words or actions are scarce. The same situation is repeated in the other books of the New Testament. In the work of the Jewish historian Flavius Josephus, there are observations about Jesus. Some may be later additions, but it is possible that some basic reference comes from the author. Although rare, there are also allusions in Roman documents from the early second century (Tacitus, Suetonius, and Pliny the Younger). In any case, the historical existence of Jesus of Nazareth can be attested from biblical writings and non-Christian sources.
Despite being primary sources for research, the gospels were not elaborated as biographies or historical records of the JM’s activity. Gospels are narratives that emerged as primary resources for Christian mission and catechesis. Mark was most likely the first gospel to be written. If the dating, around the year 70 AD, is correct, we have to consider an interval of about 40 years between the death of Jesus and the writing of this gospel. During this period, the narratives were transmitted orally and in small written accounts. In the process of transmission and writing of the gospels, modifications to the narratives may occur. Exegesis is the field of research that deals with the historical and literary criticism of biblical texts.
3 Phases of Research
It is common to systematize the research on the historical Jesus, and consequently the JM, into three major phases. However, these categorizations fail to express the multiplicity of approaches and, in most cases, are restricted to the European and North American contexts. Latin American, African, or Asian approaches are usually not considered. Popular readings, which presuppose research and construction of representations of the JM, are also not taken into account.
Despite the Anglo-Saxon scientific focus, the systematizations of the research phases demonstrate that any attempt to reconstruct an image of the JM is partial and subjective. This explains the fact that Jesus has been characterized, among other designations, as a suffering messiah, a wisdom teacher, an ethical guide, an apocalyptic prophet, a charismatic leader, a marginal Jew, a miracle worker, and a social reformer. The presentations vary according to the method, context, interest, and bias of the researcher. The biblical accounts themselves are not immune to theological development, besides not reporting all the activity of the JM, but only what was considered most significant. In this sense, historical research is characterized more by probability than by certainty. One cannot assert: “this is how it happened”; but only say: “this is how it might have happened.”
4 Historical Context
The setting for the activity of the JM was the Land of Israel. The Roman administration used the term Palestine, while in Jewish writings the designation Judea is found. The majority of the population, estimated at one million inhabitants, lived in small towns and villages, which had between 500 and 2,000 inhabitants. The economy was primarily based on family agriculture. In the coastal region and around the Lake of Gennesaret, also called the Sea of Galilee or the Sea of Tiberias, fishing was an important economic activity.
The Land of Israel had been militarily occupied by the Roman Empire since 63 BC. This Empire, with its capital in Rome, encompassed territories on three continents: Europe, Asia Minor, and Africa. The extensive dominion was based on a powerful military apparatus. The so-called Pax Romana – a period of relative stability in the dominated territories and the Empire’s borders – was maintained with the rigor of the sword. The Romans allowed local administration to be conducted by vassal kings, called allies or clients. Herod the Great governed Palestine when Jesus was born (Mt 2:1). Very skillful, he managed to maintain good relations with the Roman emperors. Internally, he preserved order with military force and a well-organized spy network. Revolts were fought with rigor and violence. After his death, the Land of Israel was divided among his three sons: Archelaus (regions of Judea, Idumea, and Samaria), Herod Antipas (Galilee and Perea), and Philip (Northern Transjordan).
Due to notable cruelty, Archelaus was called to Rome and removed from office. His area of dominion was handed over to Roman procurators. Of the seven procurators who governed Judea between AD 6 and 41, Pilate is the only one about whom we have some information. Jesus’ JM operated mainly in the small region of Galilee, ruled by Herod Antipas (Mk 6:14; Lk 3:1). For the time, it is estimated that the region had about 200,000 inhabitants. Even if he was not as cruel as his brother, Antipas did not hesitate to remove anyone who bothered him (Mk 6:16). Rebellious or opposition groups were annihilated soon after their birth. The fact that they avoided the big cities could be a preventive measure of the JM in the face of threats from this ruler (Lk 13:31).
5 Jesus Before His Public Ministry
According to the evangelist Luke, Jesus’ family lived in Nazareth and went to Bethlehem for a census (Lk 2:1-7). The gospel of Matthew, which does not mention the census, suggests that Jesus’ family lived in Bethlehem and settled in Nazareth only after the flight to Egypt (Mt 2:19-23). Both indicate that Jesus was born in Bethlehem (Lk 2:1-7; Mt 2:19-23). Christianity has assumed this tradition and cultivates it to this day, but much biblical research bets on Nazareth as the place of birth. Be that as it may, Jesus grew up and probably spent most of his life in Nazareth. For this reason, he was called the Nazarene and Jesus of Nazareth (Mk 10:47; Lk 24:19; Mt 21:11; Acts 10:38). Like his father, he practiced the trade of a carpenter (Mk 6:3). The duties of a carpenter at the time included building houses and wooden structures, making furniture, tools, and plows.
Jesus’ public ministry begins after contact with John the Baptist. John preached repentance and baptized along the Jordan River (Mt 3:1-12). Jesus submitted to baptism and, some time later, began to dedicate himself to the proclamation of the kingdom of God (Mk 1:9-11). According to Luke, he was about 30 years old (Lk 3:21-23). It is possible that Jesus spent some time with the Baptist, but there is no clear indication of this. John had a circle of followers and was very well known, to the point that Jesus was seen as the resurrected John the Baptist (Mt 9:14; Mk 6:14ff; Lk 9:7ff).
6 Sovereignty of God
The activity of the JM was characterized by the proclamation of the kingdom of God, a term mentioned more than 100 times in the gospels. Matthew uses the expression “kingdom of heaven” as a correspondence. Kingdom of God is the most common translation of the Greek phrase basileia tou theou, but the expressions “sovereignty of God” or “dominion of God” can also be used. These alternatives are even more suitable, as they have less geographic-spatial connotation and greater temporal breadth. Sovereignty of God includes the future dimension and also allows speaking of its realization in the present. The sovereignty of God happens where God exercises dominion, where people submit to his will. Thus, the “kingdom of God” can be announced as very near (Mk 1:15), as a reality already manifested (Lk 11:20), or as something that is yet to come (Mt 6:10; Lk 13:29). Jesus possibly understood the sovereignty of God as a dynamic greatness, in which the present and the future are united, in the same way that a seed is linked to a plant (Mt 13:31-33).
The expectation of the full establishment of God’s dominion was a fundamental element of Jewish eschatology. By announcing the imminent coming of God’s reign, the JM spoke of a known ideal. The conceptions were not uniform, but there were points of convergence, especially regarding the expectation that the full establishment of divine sovereignty would bring a time of complete peace, joy, and abundance. At that time, God would end foreign domination and rule his people with peace and justice. God’s dominion would be complete and infinite over all creation.
The realization of God’s dominion was, in large part, linked to the action of a messiah. The word messiah means “anointed.” Initially, anointing was part of the enthronement ceremony of kings and served as legitimation for the exercise of power (1Sm 10:1; 2Sm 5:3). In some traditions, the term messiah (anointed) also appears linked to priests (Ex 29:1-7; Zc 6:13). In the last centuries before the common era, the term messiah gained the connotation of an eschatological salvific figure. With the coming of the messiah, the time of salvation would begin. “Christ” is the Greek word that corresponds to the Hebrew “messiah” (Jn 1:41). When Peter declares that Jesus is the Christ (Mk 8:29), he is saying that Jesus is the Messiah, the one who initiates the new time. Strictly speaking, the designation would be “Jesus, the Christ” or “Jesus, the Messiah” (Mt 1:16; Acts 5:42).
7 Organization of the JM
The core of the JM consisted of an itinerant group, which traveled through villages and small towns of Galilee proclaiming the coming of God’s sovereignty. The number of twelve disciples is a symbolic representation of the reconstitution of Israel and does not indicate the exact number of Jesus’ followers. The itinerant group was larger, but hardly exceeded two dozen. Mobility, lodging, and food would not be feasible with a very large group. Adherence could occur by Jesus’ call or by the voluntary attitude of people (Mk 1:16-20; 10:52; Lk 9:57; Jn 1:43).
The investigation of female participation in the JM is hampered by androcentric language, which silences women or includes them in references to men. In ancient texts, an allusion to people in the masculine could include or exclude women. Despite this and the scarce textual basis, it is possible to say that women belonged to the JM. Some women mentioned in the crucifixion account can be identified as followers of Jesus from Galilee: Mary Magdalene; Mary, mother of James and Joseph; Salome (Mk 15:40ff). Texts from different traditions indicate that Mary Magdalene was the first person with whom Jesus spoke after his resurrection (Jn 20:14-18; Mt 28:1-10; Mk 16:9-11). It is noteworthy that this information is omitted by the apostle Paul (1Co 15:5-8).
The demands of itinerant life are extreme: leaving family and work, renouncing basic elements of subsistence and protection (Mk 1:16-20; 2:13f; Lk 9:3). This condition, which can be summarized with the phrase “we have left everything and followed you” (Mk 10:28), has been called itinerant radicalism. Perhaps the break was not as radical as some studies suggest, but it is possible to say that people gave up, partially or completely, their daily occupations to follow Jesus. Even though there was not always a place to stay or something to eat (Mt 12:1; 21:18; Lk 9:58), hospitality was decisive in the activity of the JM. Jesus and his group received provision and care from a network of patrons, consisting of family and friends as well as sympathizers. According to Jn 12:6 and 13:29, the itinerant group had a common fund, possibly composed of donations (Lk 8:3).
It would not be appropriate to restrict the JM to the group that left their tasks to follow Jesus on his journeys. Also, in their daily connections, people are challenged to live under the principles of God’s sovereignty. Therefore, the JM encompasses the itinerant group and the people who adhered to the convictions about God’s dominion, proclaimed by Jesus. The encounter with the Syrophoenician woman (Mk 7:24-30) reveals some resistance to people who did not belong to the people of Israel, but it cannot be said that they were excluded. Perhaps Jesus’ position may have shifted from an ethnic perspective restricted to Israel to a more inclusive vision (Mt 8:11).
8 Consequences of Divine Sovereignty
As a dynamic greatness that encompasses present and future, God’s dominion has implications for people and society. It covers all dimensions of life and manifests itself, for example, in the following aspects:
8.1 Spirituality
In houses, synagogues, and the temple, through the reading of sacred scriptures, prayers, and songs, the JM nurtured and stimulated the experience of spirituality. Spirituality is more than prayer and contemplation. It is the living of faith and involves the personal, community (in the sense of a religious group), and social (all social relationships) dimensions. Prayer is a characteristic element of the relationship between the people and God and also marked the activity of the JM. Jesus withdrew to pray alone (Mt 14:23; 26:39) and taught a prayer to his group (Mt 6:9-13; Lk 11:1-4). The Lord’s Prayer is a summary of Jesus’ practice and preaching. The first three petitions establish divine prerogatives: the sanctification of his name, the establishment of his kingdom, the fulfillment of his will. In the following petitions, the person expresses that they are not alone, nor do they ask only for themselves: the requests are in the plural, indicating the community nature of faith.
8.2 Healings
Healings and exorcisms played an important role in the activity of the JM. The restoration of health and social interaction were interpreted as signs that evil was being overcome and that God’s dominion was being established (Lk 7:22; 11:20). The gospels report that Jesus did not use healings and other signs as a means of propaganda, nor did he require followers after a healing. In many cases, the person is asked to go home and tell no one (Mk 7:36; 8:26; Lk 14:4). Faith appears as a central element in healing accounts (Mt 9:29; 15:28; Mk 5:34), but not all of them mention the faith of the sick. This indicates that Jesus healed without setting conditions. Healings and exorcisms were demonstrations of love and compassion (Mk 1:41).
8.3 Economy
Although the proclamation of God’s sovereignty is directed to all people, the JM had a special connection with the poorer strata and groups on the margins of society (Mt 11:5; Lk 4:18-21; 6:20). Opponents characterized Jesus as a “friend of tax collectors and sinners” (Mt 11:19; Lk 7:34). Possibly, the discriminated and less privileged people were more receptive to the JM’s message than representatives of the religious and political status quo.
Jesus’ discourses are marked by criticism of rich people and wealth (Mk 10:23; Lk 6:24-26; 8:14; 12:13-21; 16:19-31). Money is a strange power and opposed to God’s dominion (Mt 6:24). While the dominant economy was based on greed and accumulation (Lk 12:13-21), the JM preached the forgiveness of debts (Mt 18:23ff) and detachment from money (Mt 6:19-21). Poor and hungry people are called blessed and are promised that hunger will be replaced by satisfaction in God’s kingdom (Lk 6:20f). Besides ensuring that God welcomes needy people, the promise is also an ethical appeal that motivates sharing.
8.4 Power
The political positions of the JM generally appear in a veiled or indirect manner. This had a reason: political criticism, protests, or revolutionary actions were harshly combated. The presence of a foreign political power contradicted the conception of the land of Israel as divine property (Lv 25:23). Thus, even if not directly addressed, the expectation of liberation from the Roman yoke was implicit in the proclamation of God’s sovereignty. From this perspective, Jesus’ response to the question of paying taxes (Mk 12:13-17) has political consequences. The statement “give to Caesar what is Caesar’s” could mean giving back all the denarii, the symbol of domination. “Give to God what is God’s,” on the other hand, could mean returning the land of Israel, which equates to rejecting Roman rule. In Jesus’ trial, the tax issue is associated with the accusation of political agitation (Lk 23:2ff).
Unlike groups willing to fight a holy war to liberate Israel, the JM manifests a conviction of renunciation of violence. But it is possible that there were differing opinions and expectations internally. At least regarding the role of the messiah, there seems to have been a dissonance between Peter’s perspective and Jesus’ understanding: the disciple did not expect a messiah who could suffer (Mt 16:21ff).
The arrival of God’s sovereignty transfigures the values of power relations. While the “rulers” abuse power and use it for personal gain, in God’s kingdom power exists only as a service to people (Mk 10:42-45). The principle of serving requires an inward-outward movement. Those who accept the principles of divine sovereignty assume a new way of life: “not so with you” (Mk 10:43). The actions of those who submit to God’s dominion are exemplary and aim to change the situation. Even so, human action cannot hasten the coming of the kingdom. God’s sovereignty will be definitively established in the time He determines (Lk 17:20f).
9 The Trial of Jesus
Various actors participated in the trial of Jesus: Jewish authorities, Roman administration, and people. From a technical point of view, the process and the penalty were in accordance with Roman Empire norms. Crucifixion was the penalty imposed on people considered subversive and condemned for political crimes. The accusation “King of the Jews,” placed above the cross (Mk 15:26), indicates that Jesus represented a threat to the Roman administration. A portion of the people and Jewish authorities were committed to his condemnation. Jesus clashed with Jewish authorities regarding the interpretation of Mosaic law and criticism of the temple (Mk 14:55ff). But the authorities must have also considered the political factor since they were responsible for maintaining order and stability. The portion of the population that called for crucifixion may have been Jerusalem inhabitants who did not like the words about the temple (Mk 13:1f). Many people depended economically on the temple and could see it as a threat to their survival. In any case, the responsibility cannot be placed on the Jewish people. Pilate, the Roman procurator, had the final say. He decided on crucifixion, understanding that Jesus subverted political stability.
Emilio Voigt. Coordinator of the Production and Advisory Center of the IECLB – Porto Alegre (Brazil). Original text in Portuguese.
10 Bibliographical References
CROSSAN, J. D. The Historical Jesus: The Life of a Mediterranean Jewish Peasant. 2nd ed. Rio de Janeiro: Imago, 1994.
HOLMÉN, T.; PORTER, S. E. Handbook for the Study of the Historical Jesus. Leiden: Brill, 2010. 4v.
HOORNAERT, E. The Jesus Movement. Petrópolis: Vozes, 1994.
LOHFINK, G. How Did Jesus Want the Communities? The Social Dimension of Christian Faith. São Paulo: Paulinas, 1986.
MALINA, B. The Social Gospel of Jesus: The Kingdom of God in Mediterranean Perspective. São Paulo: Paulus, 2004.
MEIER, J. P. A Marginal Jew: Rethinking the Historical Jesus. 2nd ed. Rio de Janeiro: Imago, 1998.
SANDERS, E. P. Jesus and Judaism. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1985.
STEGEMANN, W. Jesus and His Time. São Leopoldo: Sinodal/EST, 2012.
TAMEZ, E. Women in the Jesus Movement, the Christ. São Leopoldo: Sinodal, 2004.
THEISSEN, G.; MERZ, A. The Historical Jesus: A Comprehensive Guide. São Paulo: Loyola, 2002.
VOIGT, E. Context and Emergence of the Jesus Movement: The Reasons for Following. São Paulo: Loyola, 2014.