Summary<\/strong><\/p>\n

1 French Revolution and the Catholic Church<\/p>\n

1.1 Revolution inspired by the Enlightenment<\/p>\n

2 Catholicism and the Restoration Process (1814\u20131846)<\/p>\n

2.1 Restoration, a concept<\/p>\n

2.2 Aggressive strategy against modernity<\/p>\n

3 Catholicism and the fight against liberalism (1846\u20131878)<\/p>\n

4 The social question and Catholicism<\/p>\n

4.1 Leo XIII (1878\u20131903) and the social question<\/p>\n

4.2 Rerum Novarum (1891)<\/p>\n

5 Condemnation of modernism and inter-ecclesial reforms<\/p>\n

5.1 Against modernism<\/p>\n

5.2 Inter-ecclesial reforms<\/p>\n

6 Renewal movements<\/p>\n

7 Catholicism and the World Wars<\/p>\n

7.1 Interwar period<\/p>\n

7.2 Pius XII: pastoral, theology, and World War II<\/p>\n

8 Transition and renewal, the Christian pope<\/p>\n

8.1 John XXIII (1958\u20131963)<\/p>\n

8.2 Vatican II (1962\u20131965) and its relation to modernity<\/p>\n

8.3 Paul VI, reformer and misunderstood (1963\u20131978)<\/p>\n

9 The criticized saint and his successor<\/p>\n

9.1 John Paul II (1978\u20132005)<\/p>\n

9.2 Benedict XVI (2005\u20132013)<\/p>\n

10 The return to Christianity: Francis<\/p>\n

11 Bibliographic References<\/p>\n

1 French Revolution and the Catholic Church<\/strong><\/p>\n

1.1 Revolution inspired by the Enlightenment<\/strong><\/em><\/p>\n

At the turn of the 18th to the 19th century, European society entered a great stage of transformations driven by the Enlightenment (intellectual), the French (social-bourgeois), and the Industrial (capitalist-economic) revolutions. The Enlightenment, in the \u201ccentury of lights\u201d (18th century), broke with religious determinism, gave unconditional strength to critical reasoning, questioned submissive obedience, organized knowledge by creating research methods, and criticized authority and power. Its criticism did not spare the Catholic Church: a social gap between high and low clergy, and indifference to the people’s hardships. The French social revolution affected the entire West, leaving deep marks on Catholicism. The struggle was grounded in the outcomes of the medieval society (clergy, nobility, artisans) and the industrial society (bourgeoisie and workers). The economic revolution brought changes in the production system; capitalism exploited natural resources, benefited from scientific progress, but progress brought with it serious consequences for society. Among them, human exploitation: long working hours, rural exodus, end of artisans, social division of labor, urban concentration, poor living conditions, prostitution, alcoholism, crime, epidemics, and a multitude of dispossessed people.<\/p>\n

The French Revolution was an unexpected event for the Catholic Church, conceived in the cradle of the Enlightenment. Its unfolding led to other revolutions until the military dictatorship of Napoleon Bonaparte. The 19th century began for the Church with a new pontificate, Pius VII (1800\u20131823). After several negotiations, the Pope signed, together with Napoleon, the Concordat (1801). The document was an attempt to restore diplomatic relations between the two States. Thus, the Church renounced the confiscated properties and accepted that the clergy’s remuneration would be paid by the French State. Bonaparte secretly added 77 \u2018organic articles\u2019 to the Concordat, which partially abolished its achievements. The Pope\u2019s protest had no effect, and Pius VII would still suffer other humiliations from Napoleon, who in 1808 ordered the occupation of Rome and the Papal States. The Pope excommunicated Napoleon, who then made Pius VII a prisoner in Fontainebleau, pressuring him to abdicate the Papal States. With Napoleon’s fall, following the Russian campaign (1812) and the Battle of Leipzig (1813), and with allied troops invading Paris (1814), Europe’s reordering was undertaken by the Congress of Vienna (1814\u20131815).<\/p>\n

At the beginning of the 19th century, the papacy seemed to be going through one of the most difficult moments of the modern era. Pius VI had died (1799) alone and abandoned, a prisoner of the French Revolution. Episcopalism seemed poised to triumph, and the papal system and infallibility, according to some German and French authors, were seen as outdated and historically irrelevant issues. No other historical event contributed as much to the triumph of the papacy at Vatican I (1869\u201370) as the French Revolution. With Pius VII, the reorganization of the French Church took place (1801), and 36 bishops living outside France were deposed, demonstrating, despite everything, that the papacy still held power. This was a step toward ultramontanism.<\/p>\n

2 Catholicism and the Restoration Process (1814\u20131846)<\/strong><\/p>\n

2.1 Restoration, a concept<\/strong><\/em><\/p>\n

With the end of the French Revolution and the Napoleonic period, Europe found itself in a state of total political, cultural, and religious disarray. It was deemed essential, by the religious institution and many members of society, to restore order by reestablishing the principles of authority, religion, and morality, as they existed under the Ancien R\u00e9gime.<\/p>\n

2.2 Aggressive strategy against modernity<\/strong><\/em><\/p>\n

The restoration program is evident in the pontificate of Pope Leo XII (1823\u20131829). His concern was to recover everything that secularization and revolution had destroyed. The intention was never to adapt the Church to the demands of the new times, but to restore it to earlier times. His successor, Pius VIII (1829\u20131830), did not have different goals. His approach was to defend the Church and the Catholic faith, protecting it from the errors of what he deemed false and perverse doctrines that attacked the faith. Education should be in the hands of the Catholic religion. It was clear that this pontificate would be one of transition. The great shift would come with his successor.<\/p>\n

The Catholic institution\u2019s aggressive reaction to modernity was not long in coming. Gregory XVI (1831\u20131846), the new pope, carried out a pontificate aligned with the cultural and political context of his time. Culture was dominated by Enlightenment thinking, anti-clericalism, Freemasonry, and anti-religious elements, while official politics leaned toward restoration. In this context, the pope published the encyclical Mirari vos<\/em> (1832). Among the topics addressed, in extremely harsh terms, were two perceived sources of evil: freedom of the press and religious indifferentism. From the standpoint of the prevailing medieval Christian mentality and ideal of a perfect society, the pope could not perceive any positive signs in his time, nor did he recognize the concerning issues within the religious institution that required transformation. The idea of Church renewal was rejected and considered an outrage. He condemned railways, bridges, and electricity. Everything was seen as a sign of modernity and, consequently, as errors to be condemned. The model of a Christendom-based Church would prevail throughout the 19th century.<\/p>\n

A significant aspect of this period was the vitality of the Church\u2019s missionary action through many religious communities and a notable blossoming of new congregations, especially in the fields of education, care for the sick, and missionary work. The contradictions of history continued throughout the 19th century. On one hand, part of the institution engaged in conflict with modernity; on the other, other sectors experienced a missionary fervor, founding congregations dedicated exclusively to missions and preparing for the future establishment of local churches.<\/p>\n

3 Catholicism and the Fight Against Liberalism (1846\u20131878)<\/strong><\/p>\n

The end of Pope Gregory XVI\u2019s pontificate was seen as a liberation by the Romans. Neither the pope nor his Secretary of State, Cardinal Lambruschini, were well-liked, and their governance was considered tyrannical and obscurantist. Everyone hoped for a new pope capable of diplomatically addressing the social and political situation. When Pius IX (1846\u20131878) was elected, liberals and democrats shaped the image of a liberal pope, although he would later be accused of being an enemy of freedom of conscience and worship, and of promoting a Church hostile to modern society. He defended the full independence of the pope and the Church from the State and was a fierce opponent of Gallicanism. On one hand, anticlericals became great enemies of the pope, especially from the second half of the 19th century onward. On the other hand, ultramontanists revered the pope to such an extent that they gave him the title of \u201cthe Great.\u201d Three fundamental points marked his pontificate: the proclamation of the dogma of the Immaculate Conception (1854), the publication of the encyclical Quanta Cura<\/em> and its appendix Syllabus<\/em> (1864), and the First Vatican Council (1869\u201370).<\/p>\n

Pius IX did not accept the constitutional regime, not only because he believed it was unfit for the Church, but also because he deemed it intrinsically flawed. His aversion to liberal Catholics was profound. The peak of his anti-liberal policy came with the publication of Quanta Cura<\/em> and the Syllabus<\/em>. The encyclical aimed to identify \u201cmodern errors\u201d that endangered the Church\u2019s faith and to demonstrate their refutation, affirming the authority of the Church, based on divine authority. These errors, stemming from the rise of modern philosophies as expressions of a new mindset, distorted human and ecclesial consciousness. Moral values and the sacred character of society were lost. The highlighted modern errors included naturalism and pantheism, liberalism, communism and socialism, and the separation between Church and State. The appendix to the encyclical, the Syllabus<\/em>, is a list of 80 modern errors previously addressed and condemned in earlier documents. The document was released at a time of discord among Catholics. In addition to the societal motivations for listing these errors, the pope critically assessed Catholics open to dialogue with modern society \u2014 those who were democratic, progressive, or constitutional \u2014 while papists, traditionalists, and ultramontanists were overly fixated on the past.<\/p>\n

Pius IX\u2019s criticisms aimed to safeguard the Church\u2019s faith and authority within modern society. His apologetics, including the dogma of the Immaculate Conception, emphasized the Church\u2019s stance of defending itself against modernity and asserting its identity, rooted in the Council of Trent (1545\u201363). These criticisms also helped highlight the extremisms on both sides \u2014 defenders and opponents of modernity. His apologetic approach fostered the necessary conditions for seeking balance in the relationship between Church and State, faith and reason.<\/p>\n

On the Feast of the Immaculate Conception in 1869, the First Vatican Council was opened with a primary goal: to complete and confirm the doctrinal exposition against the theoretical and practical rationalism of the 19th century. Two constitutions were approved \u2014 one on the Catholic faith and another on the role of the Roman Pontiff and his doctrinal authority. In July 1870, the Franco-Prussian War forced the suspension of Vatican I, which was never resumed. Also in 1870, the Papal States were officially annexed to Italian territory, a conflictual situation that led the pope to excommunicate King Victor Emmanuel and retreat to his residence at the Quirinal. Pius IX forbade Italians from running for office or voting in elections. This situation lasted for more than thirty years and marked the beginning of the Roman Question (1870\u20131929).<\/p>\n

Despite historiographical controversies, Pope John Paul II requested the continuation of Pius IX\u2019s beatification process, which was completed alongside that of Pope John XXIII on September 3, 2000.<\/p>\n

4 The Social Question and Catholicism<\/strong><\/p>\n

4.1 Leo XIII (1878\u20131903) and the Social Question<\/strong><\/em><\/p>\n

This pontificate achieved a level of prestige not previously attained. The final period of the 19th century coincided with a series of radical changes in the political, economic, social, and scientific fields. In 1892, the pope instructed the French to accept the Republic, marking the end of Christendom for the Catholic world. His magisterium addressed several issues of great relevance at the time, ranging from religious life to social matters. Society was divided by the conflict between capital and labor\u2014this was the social question. Social concern had begun in the second half of the 19th century when various countries saw the emergence of associations and circles supporting workers. Leo XIII would publish a landmark document that addressed the labor and social issues in a clear and objective way: the encyclical Rerum Novarum<\/em>.<\/p>\n

4.2 Rerum Novarum (1891)<\/strong><\/em><\/p>\n

The encyclical granted the Catholic Church a sort of charter of citizenship. Undoubtedly, the encyclical was to Christian social action what the \u201cCommunist Manifesto\u201d and Marx’s \u201cCapital\u201d were to socialist action. The document addresses the labor issue and outlines the basic principles of the Church\u2019s Social Doctrine, which would later be revisited, expanded, and applied in successive documents and pronouncements by the Magisterium. This encyclical was the first ecclesiastical magisterial text to seriously study the social problems caused by industrialization. It simultaneously condemned both liberalism and socialism, but recognized the natural right to property and emphasized its social value, assigned the State the role of promoting the common good, both public and private, thus surpassing the social absolutism of the liberal State, and acknowledged the worker’s right to a fair wage. It condemned class struggle and accepted the worker’s right to organize in defense of their interests.<\/p>\n

The encyclical was published 44 years after the appearance of Marx’s \u201cManifesto,\u201d and seemingly did not have a major impact on the workers\u2019 emancipation movement. It often used abstract language, did not analyze the real situation created by capitalism, nor did it present a structural analysis of the causes of working-class poverty. Despite these and other shortcomings, the document represents an important stance in the history of the Catholic Church.<\/p>\n

These changes in the Church’s stance also brought challenges: many people even called for Leo XIII\u2019s conversion, believing he had surrendered to Marxist ideas. On the other hand, in countries like France, Belgium, and Italy, a movement emerged known as Christian Democracy, combining apostolic aspirations, a desire for social reforms, and a political concern\u2014not always clearly defined\u2014but generally in favor of democracy.<\/p>\n

5 Condemnation of Modernism and Inter-Church Reforms<\/strong><\/p>\n

5.1 Against Modernism<\/strong><\/p>\n

Modernism and its resulting crisis began during the time of Leo XIII, but reached its critical point during the pontificate of Pius X (1903\u20131914). This movement arose in liberal university environments. It developed a way of thinking that involved applying modern methods of scientific investigation to theology. The goal was to open Christianity to the philosophical and historical demands of contemporary society. One attempt to incorporate modernist thought was carried out in Maurice Blondel’s philosophical work, L\u2019Action<\/em> (1893).<\/p>\n

The ideas of Modernism were applied to theology and Sacred Scripture. The propositions applied in the ecclesiological field tended to reduce the Church to a democratic form. Modernism was an attempt to reconcile the Catholic Church with the results achieved by historical criticism. In this sense, the Church was not seen as a hierarchy but as originating from collective consciousness, born not of divine will but of necessity\u2014generated from the bottom up. Modernist propositions were censured by the Church, but found adherents to the extent that they distanced themselves from the project of Christendom. Some modernist authors had their works placed on the Index. Some reconciled with the Church, while others were excommunicated. Two prominent figures were the French priest Alfred Loisy (1857\u20131940) and the English Jesuit George Tyrrell (1861\u20131909). The former was excommunicated, interpreted Jesus’ preaching in an eschatological sense, denied the immutability and objective value of dogmas, diminished ecclesiastical authority, and preached total separation between faith and history. The latter claimed that one could remain within Catholicism on the condition of distinguishing between living faith and dead theology, between the real Church and the authority that governs it. He was expelled from the Society of Jesus and not accepted into any diocese. Later, he was excluded from the sacraments, though not excommunicated.<\/p>\n

Through the encyclical Pascendi Dominici Gregis<\/em> and the decree Lamentabili<\/em> (1907), Pius X issued a strong condemnation of Modernism, suppressing any reconciliation of Christian doctrine with science and modern knowledge. A formal inquisition was launched against the perceived heresy of reformist theologians, particularly exegetes and historians. The works of Lagrange, Funk, Delehaye, and Duchesne were excluded from teaching. In 1910, seminary professors were required to take the Anti-Modernist Oath. Apostolic visitations were conducted in Italian seminaries, often resulting in harsh reports from the visitors. One of those evaluated was Angelo Roncalli, the future John XXIII.<\/p>\n

5.2 Inter-Church Reforms<\/strong><\/em><\/p>\n

Pope Pius X was one of the great reformers of the Church. One of his major initiatives was the legislative organization of the Church through the Code of Canon Law. Its final presentation occurred in 1917, during the pontificate of Benedict XV. Other reforms took place in catechesis and liturgy. He organized a catechism of Christian doctrine. In the liturgy, he issued documents on sacred music (restoration of Gregorian chant), the breviary (harmonization of the breviary and liturgical year), and the Eucharist (frequent communion and lowered age for First Communion). Pius X was canonized by Pius XII in 1954.<\/p>\n

6 Renewal Movements<\/strong><\/p>\n

The biblical, liturgical, and ecumenical movements were the entry points for the modern individual into the Church. They emerged in the 19th century and gained momentum in the 20th. The early roots of Vatican II also stem from these movements. The ecumenical movement, for instance, began outside the Catholic Church. In Edinburgh, Scotland, in 1910, Protestant missionaries organized a conference to explore possibilities and means of unity, aiming at a single Christian evangelization. Thus was born the ecumenical movement. In 1960, under Pope John XXIII, the Secretariat for the Promotion of Christian Unity was established, headed by the German Jesuit Cardinal Augustin Bea. The movement originated in the Protestant world for evangelization purposes and gained relevance in the Catholic Church as theologians embraced the project.<\/p>\n

7 Catholicism and the World Wars<\/strong><\/p>\n

The pontificate of Benedict XV (1914\u20131922) occupies an intermediate and historically significant position in understanding modernity. The pope was involved in mediation efforts during World War I, but without success. The global chaos of the war (1914\u20131918) made it clear that the core values of modernity were in crisis: the absolutization of reason, progress, the nation, and industry. Complete faith in reason, progress, nationalism, capitalism, and socialism had failed. Europe was paying a high price due to the reactionary movements of fascism, Nazism, and communism. These movements idealized, in a modern fashion, race, class, and leaders, hindering the formation of a new and better world order.<\/p>\n

World War I set in motion the global revolution that would become explicit after World War II: the shift from the Eurocentric paradigm of modernity<\/em>, which bore colonialist, imperialist, and capitalist characteristics. The new paradigm that began to develop\u2014postmodernity\u2014would be global, polycentric, and ecumenically oriented. The Catholic Church recognized this only partially and somewhat late.<\/p>\n

7.1 Interwar Period<\/strong><\/em><\/p>\n

The meaning of the pontificate of Pius XI (1922\u20131939), during the interwar period, must be understood in light of the political events of his time: a humanity oppressed by the totalitarian regimes born from mass society, and the deep ideological divisions that, especially during the civil war, led to Christian values and the Church being opposed and persecuted. His pontificate unfolded amidst the drama of major events that shaped the contemporary world: fascism, Nazism, and Stalinist totalitarianism. This entire context, to some extent, justified his policy of concordats, including the Lateran Pacts (1929) in Italy. His activities would be expressed in encyclicals such as: Non abbiamo bisogno<\/em> (1931), Quadragesimo anno<\/em> (1931), Mit brennender Sorge<\/em> (1937), and later, the condemnation of atheistic communism in Divini Redemptoris<\/em> (1937).<\/p>\n

Catholic Action (a lay movement), organized during this pontificate, laid the groundwork for the preparation of the Second Vatican Council. Although that was its initial intent, the lay members of Catholic Action\u2014students (JEC), university students (JUC), workers (JOC, ACO), rural communities (JAC), and members of the independent professions (JIC)\u2014became deeply involved in their specific social settings, to the point that they brought the modern questions and reflections from these contexts into the Church. This lay engagement in the world, their political involvement, led to increased participation in Church life, demanding greater spiritual and theological formation. It was at this point that the laity confronted the challenges of modernity. Thinkers such as Yves Congar, Jacques Maritain, and Emmanuel Mounier developed theological reflections on the presence of Christian laypersons in both the Church and the world. All this thinking was marked by the signs of modernity.<\/p>\n

In response to fascist measures enacted in Italy in June 1938, and as the Jewish question worsened in Germany, Pius XI entrusted American Jesuit Fr. John La Farge with the task of preparing a document on the unity of the human race, specifically to condemn racism and antisemitism. The draft reached the pope only at the end of 1938. The pope was already ill and would soon pass away, and the encyclical was never published. In Brazil, the encyclical<\/em> (along with a long commentary) was published by Editora Vozes under the title \u201cThe Hidden Encyclical of Pius XI.\u201d<\/p>\n

7.2 Pius XII: Pastoral, Theology, and World War II<\/strong><\/em><\/p>\n

Pius XII (1939\u20131958) aimed to revive the project of a Christian civilization. Eugenio Pacelli, formerly nuncio in Munich, had a pontificate marked by extremes. This is explained by the stark contrast between his figure and policies and those of his successor, John XXIII (the \u201cPope of the Century\u201d). Pius XII embodied the papacy in all its dignity and supremacy. He inherited from his predecessor a highly centralized Church. His actions took on new tones, especially regarding his relations with Germany and Nazism. In this regard, his pontificate was heavily criticized by some, who lamented the lack of public statements on the Holocaust, while others defended him, arguing that he did everything within his power through diplomatic channels.<\/p>\n

The magisterium of Pius XII can be understood through his messages, speeches, and encyclicals. His pontificate may be considered the last of the medieval anti-modern era. It exhibited several authoritarian aspects: he rejected evolutionary, existentialist, and historicist doctrines, and their infiltration into Catholic theology had a major impact, leading to the censure of scholars such as Maritain, Congar, Chenu, De Lubac, Mazzolari, Milani, and the French worker-priests.<\/p>\n

The global situation\u2014and, in many respects, the internal life of the Church\u2014was marked by a desire for change. Pius XII viewed reforms positively but tended toward excessive caution. His increasing concern with a Church involved in a world of upheaval and revolutionary tensions partly explains why he began concentrating governance in his own hands. Eugenio Pacelli saw the exposition of Church doctrine in response to the many problems of the modern world as his most important mission. He published a large number of encyclicals. The most notable were Mystici Corporis<\/em> (1950) and Humani Generis<\/em> (1950). The first addresses the identity and structure of the Church, clearly opposing the new theology. The second defines the pope’s position on the modern theory of evolution, rejecting certain hypotheses from the school of Teilhard de Chardin (without citing names). He paid special attention to Marian doctrine. In 1950, he proclaimed the dogma of the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary.<\/p>\n

8 Transition and Renewal: The Christian Pope<\/strong><\/p>\n

8.1 John XXIII (1958\u20131963)<\/strong><\/em><\/p>\n

The pontificate of John XXIII was characterized by a prophetic ecclesiology and his pastoral approach in continuity with the Church\u2019s tradition. His early pastoral gestures indicated a new direction for the Church. In 1959, he announced three ecclesial events: the Diocesan Synod of Rome, the revision of the Code of Canon Law, and a Council\u2014Vatican II. His pontificate of aggiornamento<\/em> marked a turning point due to his intuition in convening the Council.<\/p>\n

Angelo Giuseppe Roncalli was born in the village of Sotto il Monte, in the province of Bergamo, Italy, on November 25, 1881, into a poor family of farmers. Young Roncalli studied the first two years of theology at the seminary in Bergamo, joining the Secular Franciscan Order in 1896 and professing its rule in May 1897. With a scholarship from his diocese, he attended the Pontifical Roman Seminary, where he was ordained a priest in August 1904 in Rome. In 1905, he was appointed secretary to the Bishop of Bergamo, Giacomo Radini Tedeschi, which allowed him to travel widely, make pastoral visits, and assist in numerous apostolic initiatives such as synods, the diocesan bulletin, and social works. He contributed to the diocesan Catholic newspaper and was chaplain of the Women\u2019s Catholic Action. As a professor at the local seminary, he deepened his studies on three Catholic preachers: Saint Francis de Sales, Saint Gregory Barbarigo (then Blessed, later canonized by Roncalli in 1960), and Saint Charles Borromeo, whose visitation records in the diocese of Bergamo from 1575 he published. After the bishop\u2019s death in 1914, Roncalli continued his priestly ministry in the diocese, where he had hoped to remain.<\/p>\n

In 1915, Roncalli went to war to defend his country, having completed a year of military service during his seminary years in Rome. He was drafted as a medical sergeant and appointed military chaplain to wounded soldiers returning from the front lines, following Italy\u2019s entry into the war after the Treaty of London on April 26, 1915, breaking from the Triple Alliance.<\/p>\n

The second phase of his life began in 1921 when Pope Benedict XV (1914\u20131922) called him to serve on the Council for the Pontifical Mission Societies, of which he became president. This role required him to travel extensively across Italian dioceses organizing missionary circles. This Roman period and his seemingly peaceful life as a priest did not last long. Under Pope Pius XI (1922\u20131938), the priest from the small village of Sotto il Monte was consecrated a bishop in 1925 and appointed Apostolic Visitor to Bulgaria. In 1934, he was named Apostolic Delegate to Turkey and Greece, while also serving as administrator of the Apostolic Vicariate of Istanbul, where he stood out for his dialogue with Muslims and Orthodox Christians.<\/p>\n

In 1944, Pius XII appointed Roncalli Apostolic Nuncio to Paris, with direct support from the pro-Secretary of State, Monsignor Montini. At the age of fifty-three, Roncalli was made a cardinal and two years later became Patriarch of Venice. At seventy-seven, he entered the conclave and was elected Pope John XXIII. His encyclical Pacem in Terris<\/em> (1963) was the final act of a brief yet intense, dynamic, and impactful pontificate.<\/p>\n

The pope’s death on June 3, 1963\u2014Pentecost Sunday\u2014was met with deep emotion across the Catholic world. This moment was strikingly different from other times: men and women from all nations and religions mourned his passing. John XXIII was canonized in April 2014 by Pope Francis.<\/p>\n

8.2 Vatican II (1962\u20131965) and Its Relationship with Modernity<\/strong><\/em><\/p>\n

On October 11, 1962, John XXIII opened the first session of the Council. The opening text, Gaudet Mater Ecclesia<\/em>, was of fundamental importance and deeply influenced the drafting of all the conciliar documents. Three points are especially noteworthy. First, the pope addresses prophets of doom, who see only decline and catastrophe in the modern world, behaving as though they have learned nothing from history. Second, the central focus of the Council: it was not merely to discuss one or another article of fundamental Church doctrine, repeating and proclaiming the teaching of ancient and modern theologians, which was already well known. If that were the goal, a Council would not have been necessary. Rather, the aim was a renewed, calm, and faithful adherence to the entire teaching of the Church. Third, while the Church had always opposed errors\u2014sometimes with severe condemnations\u2014it now sought to carry the light of religious truth with the attitude of a loving mother: kind, patient, and merciful even toward her estranged children.<\/p>\n

Vatican II promulgated sixteen constitutions, decrees, and declarations. There is general agreement that the Dogmatic Constitution Lumen Gentium<\/em> and the Pastoral Constitution Gaudium et Spes<\/em> are the core of the Council. The Church had the courage to examine its past, reflect on it, and establish a new relationship with the present. The dialogue initiated and the fruits it bore continue to this day.<\/p>\n

Two major figures led the Council: John XXIII, who died after the first session at age 82, and Paul VI (1963\u20131978), who succeeded him. Montini (Paul VI\u2014beatified in 2014 by Pope Francis) took seriously the major task of continuing the Council, albeit with a different tone. Roncalli (John XXIII) was a shepherd, while Montini was a curial figure. Thus, post-conciliar analysis calls for reflection on both the advances and setbacks within the Council itself. Despite reforms in liturgy, the renewal of the Catholic Church, and the ecumenical dialogue with other Christian churches desired by John XXIII, the Council did not result in radical change but rather in stability. Historically, it was too soon, despite the open window, to witness absolute transformations in everyday Church life\u2014opening the window, doors, dusting off furniture, and, most importantly, cleansing interior attitudes. Still, it was a significant step toward dialogue with modernity. At times, however, it returned to monologue.<\/p>\n

8.3 Paul VI: Reformer and Misunderstood (1963\u20131978)<\/strong><\/em><\/p>\n

Pope Paul VI, Giovanni Battista Montini, was born in Concesio, near Brescia, in 1897. From a wealthy family, his devoutly Catholic mother was president of the Catholic Women\u2019s Association of Brescia. His father, a doctor of law, writer, and founder of the newspaper \u201cIl cittadino di Brescia,\u201d served as president of the Catholic Electoral Union of Brescia and was a member of parliament for the Popular Party, of which he was a founding member. Ordained a priest in 1920, Montini studied canon law at the Gregorian University in Rome and, after passing an entrance exam, briefly became a professor.<\/p>\n

Apr\u00e8s ses travaux au sein du Secr\u00e9tariat d\u2019\u00c9tat du Saint-Si\u00e8ge, Montini fut nomm\u00e9 archev\u00eaque de Milan. Durant son \u00e9piscopat \u00e0 Milan (1955-1963), il se rapprocha des ouvriers et des revendications de la gauche actives dans son archidioc\u00e8se, sans oublier ceux qui \u00e9taient \u00e9loign\u00e9s de l\u2019\u00c9glise. L\u2019un des \u00e9v\u00e9nements les plus marquants qu\u2019il organisa \u00e0 Milan fut la Mission de Milan<\/em> (5-24 novembre 1957). Ce fut une vaste \u0153uvre pastorale mobilisant toute la grande ville. Pr\u00e9par\u00e9e pendant deux ans, elle mobilisa 500 agents pastoraux, deux cardinaux, 24 \u00e9v\u00eaques, et comprit sept mille interventions et conf\u00e9rences dans les \u00e9glises, les usines, et les institutions culturelles. Le th\u00e8me central de toutes les pr\u00e9dications \u00e9tait Dieu le P\u00e8re. L\u2019archev\u00eaque Montini y participa activement par la radio, des \u00e9crits et des conf\u00e9rences. Il chercha \u00e0 mettre en \u0153uvre une r\u00e9forme pastorale favorisant le renouveau liturgique et encourageant la construction de nouvelles \u00e9glises. Il consacra 72 \u00e9glises durant son temps \u00e0 Milan. Au moment de son \u00e9lection pontificale, 19 autres \u00e9glises \u00e9taient en construction.<\/p>\n

D\u00e8s le lendemain de son \u00e9lection, Paul VI annon\u00e7a, par un message radiophonique, son intention de poursuivre le Concile. Il coordonna les trois sessions suivantes du Concile Vatican II.<\/p>\n

D\u2019Am\u00e9rique latine, le pape re\u00e7ut des d\u00e9nonciations sur la condition d\u00e9plorable des populations appauvries, vivant dans la mis\u00e8re, souvent sous des r\u00e9gimes dictatoriaux funestes soutenus par le capitalisme \u00ab d\u00e9mocratique \u00bb am\u00e9ricain. Le pape ne resta pas indiff\u00e9rent \u00e0 cette situation, publiant l\u2019encyclique Populorum Progressio<\/em> (1967), qui suscita un vif d\u00e9bat tant dans les milieux eccl\u00e9siaux qu\u2019en dehors, notamment parmi les conservateurs de la Curie, qui estimaient que le pape s\u2019\u00e9tait trop orient\u00e9 \u00e0 gauche, surtout en remettant en question la supr\u00e9matie de la propri\u00e9t\u00e9 priv\u00e9e au d\u00e9triment des droits collectifs.<\/p>\n

Le pape publia d\u2019autres encycliques, mais celle qui suscita le plus de discussions fut Humanae Vitae<\/em> (1968). Cette encyclique abordait une question hautement sensible dans la soci\u00e9t\u00e9 : le contr\u00f4le des naissances. Jamais une encyclique n\u2019avait provoqu\u00e9 autant de pol\u00e9miques internes et externes. Le texte traite de la sexualit\u00e9 humaine, affirmant qu\u2019elle ne doit pas \u00eatre per\u00e7ue comme un simple plaisir animal. L\u2019incompr\u00e9hension de ce document provient surtout d\u2019une lecture r\u00e9ductrice, centr\u00e9e sur l\u2019interdiction de la pilule contraceptive, n\u00e9gligeant l\u2019autre partie, hautement positive, valorisant la fonction cr\u00e9ative de la sexualit\u00e9, non seulement biologique, mais aussi personnaliste.<\/p>\n

\u00c0 J\u00e9rusalem (1964), il \u00e9treignit le patriarche Ath\u00e9nagoras dans un geste de dialogue avec tous les chr\u00e9tiens. Lors du Congr\u00e8s eucharistique de Bombay (Inde \u2013 1964), il rencontra les fid\u00e8les catholiques. Il pronon\u00e7a un discours \u00e0 l\u2019ONU (1965) devant 117 d\u00e9l\u00e9gu\u00e9s de divers pays, marquant ainsi le dialogue avec la soci\u00e9t\u00e9. Il c\u00e9l\u00e9bra une messe \u00e0 F\u00e1tima, au Portugal, en 1967, \u00e0 l\u2019occasion du 50^{e<\/sup> anniversaire des apparitions mariales. Lors du Congr\u00e8s eucharistique de Bogot\u00e1 (1968), il ouvrit la IIe<\/sup> Conf\u00e9rence de l\u2019\u00c9piscopat latino-am\u00e9ricain \u00e0 Medell\u00edn, une rencontre avec les pauvres du Tiers Monde. Lors de la pri\u00e8re au Congr\u00e8s \u0153cum\u00e9nique des \u00c9glises \u00e0 Gen\u00e8ve (1969), il embrassa tous les fr\u00e8res chr\u00e9tiens des autres confessions.<\/p>\n}

La question de la coll\u00e9gialit\u00e9 fut pour Paul VI un enjeu fondamental, li\u00e9 \u00e0 une autre pr\u00e9occupation majeure : l\u2019\u0153cum\u00e9nisme. \u00c0 ces questions internes s\u2019ajoute un d\u00e9fi toujours d\u2019actualit\u00e9 et avec lequel l\u2019institution religieuse a encore du mal \u00e0 composer : le dialogue avec la soci\u00e9t\u00e9. Pour avancer sur les th\u00e8mes abord\u00e9s par Vatican II, le pape avait conscience qu\u2019au sein de l\u2019institution coexistaient deux p\u00f4les hautement conflictuels : nouveaut\u00e9 et tradition, v\u00e9rit\u00e9 et charit\u00e9, historicit\u00e9 et permanence, autorit\u00e9 et libert\u00e9, pouvoir et fraternit\u00e9, sup\u00e9riorit\u00e9 et humilit\u00e9, s\u00e9paration du monde et unit\u00e9 avec le monde. Paul VI \u00e9tait pleinement conscient qu\u2019il lui fallait r\u00e9concilier ces bin\u00f4mes. Il convient \u00e9galement de souligner que ce pontificat d\u00e9buta durant une p\u00e9riode conciliaire et se poursuivit difficilement dans les premi\u00e8res ann\u00e9es de l\u2019apr\u00e8s-Concile.<\/p>\n

Paul VI mourut le 6 ao\u00fbt 1978 \u00e0 Castel Gandolfo, \u00e0 l\u2019\u00e2ge de 81 ans. Il fut inhum\u00e9 dans la crypte de la basilique Saint-Pierre, dans une tombe modeste, comme il l\u2019avait demand\u00e9 dans son testament.<\/p>\n

9 Le saint critiqu\u00e9 et son successeur<\/strong><\/p>\n

9.1 Jean-Paul II (1978-2005)<\/strong><\/em><\/p>\n

Karol Wojty\u0142a, le pape Jean-Paul II, \u00e9lu en 1978 apr\u00e8s la mort soudaine de Jean-Paul Ier, dont le pontificat n\u2019a dur\u00e9 que 33 jours, re\u00e7ut l\u2019h\u00e9ritage spirituel laiss\u00e9 par Paul VI ainsi que l\u2019esprit pastoral du Concile Vatican II. Son long pontificat (1978-2005) est marqu\u00e9 par divers aspects, notamment religieux. Renfor\u00e7ant cette dimension religieuse, le pape lan\u00e7a la Nouvelle \u00c9vang\u00e9lisation. Il r\u00e9digea 14 encycliques (dont 3 sociales), ainsi que de nombreux documents et cat\u00e9ch\u00e8ses. Le Code de droit canonique (1983) et le Cat\u00e9chisme de l\u2019\u00c9glise catholique furent l\u2019apog\u00e9e d\u2019un processus amorc\u00e9 et enrichi durant ce pontificat. Il formula de vives critiques tant \u00e0 l\u2019encontre du communisme totalitaire que du capitalisme. Il encouragea l\u2019\u0153cum\u00e9nisme et le dialogue interreligieux. Il visita 114 pays, attirant des foules immenses. Le jubil\u00e9 de l\u2019an 2000 fut une c\u00e9l\u00e9bration grandiose et un \u00e9lan pour la nouvelle \u00e9vang\u00e9lisation.<\/p>\n

Le pontificat de Wojty\u0142a re\u00e7ut aussi des critiques, comme celles du j\u00e9suite br\u00e9silien Jo\u00e3o Batista Lib\u00e2nio (2005), qui vis\u00e8rent le Code et le Cat\u00e9chisme, notamment en ce qu\u2019ils n\u2019ont pas su \u00e9tablir de ponts dans la continuit\u00e9 de Vatican II. Plusieurs th\u00e9ologiens exprim\u00e8rent leurs r\u00e9serves \u00e0 propos du Synode extraordinaire de 1985, convoqu\u00e9 pour \u00e9valuer Vatican II, mais per\u00e7u comme un retour \u00e0 l\u2019avant-Concile. Jean-Paul II fut critiqu\u00e9, malgr\u00e9 son affirmation de la coll\u00e9gialit\u00e9, pour sa centralisation, ayant pour pilier la Curie romaine, avec une eccl\u00e9siologie hi\u00e9rarchique, au d\u00e9triment de la r\u00e9alisation concr\u00e8te de l\u2019\u00c9glise Peuple de Dieu. Ont \u00e9galement \u00e9t\u00e9 remis en question les restrictions impos\u00e9es aux femmes dans les divers niveaux minist\u00e9riels et la condamnation de nombreux th\u00e9ologiens. Un certain autoritarisme et cl\u00e9ricalisme r\u00e9apparurent durant son pontificat, \u00e0 l\u2019encontre des orientations de Vatican II.<\/p>\n

Le pape dut affronter de nombreuses souffrances personnelles li\u00e9es \u00e0 sa sant\u00e9, notamment un attentat en 1981 sur la place Saint-Pierre. Sa sant\u00e9 connut de nombreuses p\u00e9riodes difficiles, provoquant une grande \u00e9motion parmi les fid\u00e8les dans les derni\u00e8res ann\u00e9es de son pontificat. Une foule immense assista \u00e0 ses fun\u00e9railles \u00e0 Rome et demanda sa canonisation imm\u00e9diate. Il fut canonis\u00e9 en 2014, en m\u00eame temps que Jean XXIII.<\/p>\n

9.2 Beno\u00eet XVI (2005-2013)<\/strong><\/em><\/p>\n

Le successeur de Jean-Paul II fut son bras droit \u00e0 la Curie romaine, le pr\u00e9fet de la Congr\u00e9gation pour la Doctrine de la Foi, le cardinal allemand Joseph Ratzinger. Son \u00e9lection par le conclave suscita de nombreuses r\u00e9serves dans les milieux eccl\u00e9siastiques. Il fit face \u00e0 de nombreuses difficult\u00e9s et restera dans l\u2019histoire comme le pape th\u00e9ologien et celui qui renon\u00e7a.<\/p>\n

Le 11 f\u00e9vrier 2013, au Vatican, dans la salle du Consistoire, Beno\u00eet XVI pr\u00e9sida un consistoire public pour la canonisation de bienheureux. Ensuite, il lut une br\u00e8ve d\u00e9claration en latin, dat\u00e9e de la veille et sign\u00e9e de sa main, dans laquelle il annon\u00e7ait sa d\u00e9cision de renoncer au pontificat pour raisons d\u2019\u00e2ge, pr\u00e9cisant que le Si\u00e8ge de Pierre serait vacant \u00e0 partir du 28 f\u00e9vrier \u00e0 20 heures. La d\u00e9claration, en 22 lignes, allait marquer un tournant historique pour l\u2019\u00c9glise. Sa renonciation fut un acte majeur, qui devint r\u00e9volutionnaire. Beno\u00eet XVI a ainsi ancr\u00e9 la papaut\u00e9 dans les temps modernes.<\/p>\n

Son pontificat fut extr\u00eamement difficile. Il fut marqu\u00e9 par des obstacles, attaques, crises, scandales (p\u00e9dophilie) et tensions dans le gouvernement de la Curie romaine, avec carri\u00e9risme et luttes internes. Ses quelques ann\u00e9es de pontificat furent marqu\u00e9es par d\u2019autres controverses : les relations avec les \u00e9v\u00eaques lefebvristes ; l\u2019autorisation de la messe en latin par le Motu Proprio Summorum Pontificum<\/em> (2007), ravivant la pri\u00e8re pour la conversion des juifs ; les d\u00e9bats autour des herm\u00e9neutiques de Vatican II ; le discours de Ratisbonne (Allemagne, 2006) ; le cas Richard Williamson de la Fraternit\u00e9 Saint-Pie X, excommuni\u00e9 par Jean-Paul II et r\u00e9habilit\u00e9 par le pape Ratzinger ; les notifications de la Congr\u00e9gation pour la Doctrine de la Foi \u00e0 divers th\u00e9ologiens, parmi lesquels Roger Haight, Jon Sobrino, Jacques Dupuis, Peter Phan, Torres Queiruga, Jos\u00e9 Antonio Pagola.<\/p>\n

Certains projets initi\u00e9s par Beno\u00eet XVI ont \u00e9t\u00e9 interrompus, de la \u00ab r\u00e9forme de la r\u00e9forme \u00bb de la liturgie aux relations avec les lefebvristes, en passant par le dialogue \u0153cum\u00e9nique. L\u2019affaire Vatileaks, survenue durant la derni\u00e8re ann\u00e9e de son pontificat, a mis en lumi\u00e8re une r\u00e9alit\u00e9 complexe, qui ne se limite certainement pas \u00e0 la trahison du majordome Paolo Gabriele, lequel avait transmis des documents confidentiels \u00e0 des tiers non autoris\u00e9s, ensuite publi\u00e9s. C\u2019est dans ce contexte que le pape Beno\u00eet XVI renonce et que, simultan\u00e9ment, est \u00e9lu Jorge Mario Bergoglio, le pape Fran\u00e7ois. Son \u00e9lection (2013) semble \u00e9voquer cette vision vieille de huit si\u00e8cles : \u00ab Va Fran\u00e7ois, et r\u00e9pare mon \u00c9glise en ruine \u00bb. Sa mission, confi\u00e9e par les cardinaux \u00e9lecteurs, est de redorer l\u2019image ternie de l\u2019\u00c9glise.<\/p>\n

10 Le retour au christianisme : Fran\u00e7ois<\/strong><\/p>\n

\u00c9lu en 2013, Fran\u00e7ois est le premier pape j\u00e9suite et latino-am\u00e9ricain (Argentine) en vingt si\u00e8cles d\u2019histoire de l\u2019\u00c9glise catholique. Son nom constitue un programme pour son pontificat : proximit\u00e9 avec les pauvres et engagement pour le renouveau de l\u2019\u00c9glise. Le cardinal Bergoglio est n\u00e9 en 1936, dans le quartier de Flores, au c\u0153ur de Buenos Aires. En 1957, il entre dans la Compagnie de J\u00e9sus. Ses ann\u00e9es d\u2019\u00e9tudes en th\u00e9ologie et philosophie se d\u00e9roulent en Argentine et au Chili. Il est ordonn\u00e9 pr\u00eatre en d\u00e9cembre 1969. On ne peut le qualifier de grand carri\u00e9riste : il fut provincial des j\u00e9suites d\u2019Argentine de 1973 \u00e0 1979. De 1980 \u00e0 1986, il dirigea la Facult\u00e9 de Th\u00e9ologie de San Miguel. En 1992, il est nomm\u00e9 \u00e9v\u00eaque auxiliaire de l\u2019archidioc\u00e8se de Buenos Aires, alors dirig\u00e9 par le cardinal Antonio Quarracino. Apr\u00e8s la mort de ce dernier en 1998, Bergoglio devient archev\u00eaque de Buenos Aires. Il est cr\u00e9\u00e9 cardinal par Jean-Paul II en 2001. Le 13 mars 2013, \u00e0 16h30, au quatri\u00e8me tour de scrutin dans la chapelle Sixtine, au Vatican, il est \u00e9lu pape. Fran\u00e7ois est confront\u00e9 \u00e0 une mission immense, non seulement par le service lui-m\u00eame, mais aussi par les grandes difficult\u00e9s que traverse l\u2019institution. Ce sont des d\u00e9fis que le pape j\u00e9suite conna\u00eet bien ; il est important de semer la graine, mais il n\u2019est pas n\u00e9cessaire d\u2019en r\u00e9colter les fruits imm\u00e9diatement. Fran\u00e7ois affirme : \u00ab Je me m\u00e9fie des d\u00e9cisions prises de mani\u00e8re pr\u00e9cipit\u00e9e \u00bb (SPADARO, 2013, p.11). Durant sa premi\u00e8re ann\u00e9e de pontificat, il publie l\u2019encyclique Lumen Fidei<\/em>, commenc\u00e9e par Beno\u00eet XVI.<\/p>\n

En ces temps de n\u00e9olib\u00e9ralisme, rien n\u2019est plus actuel que de formuler des enseignements sociaux dans des contextes sans cesse renouvel\u00e9s, et de les proclamer de mani\u00e8re proph\u00e9tique et critique. Le pape Fran\u00e7ois, pr\u00e9occup\u00e9 par l\u2019inach\u00e8vement du Concile Vatican II, affirme que le commandement \u00ab tu ne tueras point \u00bb \u00e9tablit une limite claire pour garantir la valeur de la vie humaine. Ainsi, aujourd\u2019hui, nous devons dire \u00ab non \u00e0 une \u00e9conomie de l\u2019exclusion et de l\u2019in\u00e9galit\u00e9 sociale \u00bb (Evangelii Gaudium<\/em>, n.53). L\u2019exhortation apostolique Evangelii Gaudium<\/em>, publi\u00e9e en 2013, a suscit\u00e9 un vaste d\u00e9bat \u00e0 travers le monde. Certains y voient un grand progr\u00e8s en mati\u00e8re sociale, tandis que d\u2019autres, notamment des entrepreneurs am\u00e9ricains, se sont montr\u00e9s tr\u00e8s m\u00e9contents des critiques adress\u00e9es au capitalisme \u2013 critiques d\u00e9j\u00e0 formul\u00e9es par Jean-Paul II. Dans ce texte, Fran\u00e7ois d\u00e9nonce que \u00ab l\u2019\u00eatre humain est lui-m\u00eame consid\u00e9r\u00e9 comme un bien de consommation que l\u2019on peut utiliser puis jeter \u00bb (EG n.53). Il s\u2019agit donc d\u2019une d\u00e9claration forte, et d\u2019un besoin de mise \u00e0 jour du Concile Vatican II, valorisant la dignit\u00e9 de la personne et affirmant sans crainte un non retentissant \u00e0 la sacralisation du march\u00e9. Non \u00e0 l\u2019argent qui gouverne au lieu de servir.<\/p>\n

Ce que le pape met en \u0153uvre \u00e9tait un r\u00eave de Jean XXIII : que l\u2019\u00c9glise sorte du cadre de Vatican II et se rapproche r\u00e9ellement des pauvres, afin qu\u2019ils se sentent chez eux en son sein. Pourtant, dans les documents du Concile, les pauvres semblent s\u2019\u00eatre \u00e9gar\u00e9s. Les appauvris ne peuvent \u00eatre \u00e9cart\u00e9s de la vision d\u2019une \u00c9glise fid\u00e8le aux inspirations de Vatican II. Ce th\u00e8me reste \u00e9vang\u00e9liquement d\u2019actualit\u00e9, bien qu\u2019il ait souvent \u00e9t\u00e9 pass\u00e9 sous silence dans la soci\u00e9t\u00e9 et m\u00eame au sein de certains secteurs eccl\u00e9siaux.<\/p>\n

Le pape a d\u00e9montr\u00e9 sa capacit\u00e9 \u00e0 dialoguer avec les juifs, les musulmans et les fid\u00e8les d\u2019autres confessions religieuses, dans une perspective d\u2019eccl\u00e9siologie missionnaire : une \u00c9glise en sortie, tourn\u00e9e vers la soci\u00e9t\u00e9 et au service de l\u2019humanit\u00e9. Une \u00c9glise capable d\u2019\u00e9coute et de promouvoir une inculturation urgente de la foi, laquelle a \u00e9t\u00e9 frein\u00e9e ces derni\u00e8res ann\u00e9es par une trop grande centralisation.<\/p>\n

Un \u00e9v\u00e9nement historique et embl\u00e9matique marquant le d\u00e9but de son pontificat fut la c\u00e9l\u00e9bration de la XXVIIIe Journ\u00e9e mondiale de la jeunesse (juillet 2013), \u00e0 Rio de Janeiro \u2013 Br\u00e9sil. Ses discours, hom\u00e9lies, gestes et la pr\u00e9sence massive des fid\u00e8les ont r\u00e9v\u00e9l\u00e9 la relation qui caract\u00e9rise d\u00e9j\u00e0 ce pontificat : une proximit\u00e9 avec le peuple, non seulement dans les paroles, mais aussi dans une saine r\u00e9bellion face \u00e0 sa propre s\u00e9curit\u00e9 personnelle. Il a visit\u00e9 les p\u00e9riph\u00e9ries de la \u00ab cidade maravilhosa \u00bb et c\u00e9l\u00e9br\u00e9 au Sanctuaire d\u2019Aparecida do Norte, \u00e0 S\u00e3o Paulo. Il a rencontr\u00e9 les Argentins dans la cath\u00e9drale Saint-S\u00e9bastien de Rio de Janeiro. Partout o\u00f9 il est pass\u00e9, il a laiss\u00e9 le signe d\u2019un \u00e9v\u00eaque de Rome diff\u00e9rent, sur les traces de Fran\u00e7ois d\u2019Assise, en qu\u00eate de r\u00e9formes et d\u2019une \u00c9glise missionnaire. Cette m\u00eame ann\u00e9e, il visita encore en Italie Cagliari, Assise, ainsi que le lieu embl\u00e9matique de Lampedusa, o\u00f9 il prit la parole sur la trag\u00e9die mondiale de l\u2019immigration et les nombreuses morts en mer, notamment lors du naufrage d\u2019Africains.<\/p>\n

En 2014, le pape a visit\u00e9 la Turquie, Tirana (Albanie), le Parlement europ\u00e9en, la Cor\u00e9e du Sud et la Terre Sainte. En Italie, ses visites comprenaient Redipuglia, Caserte, Campobasso, Bojano, Isernia-Venafro et Cassano allo Ionio. Il convoqua et participa au Synode extraordinaire sur la famille en 2014, qui trouva sa continuit\u00e9 et son ach\u00e8vement en octobre 2015. En 2015, il visita les Philippines, o\u00f9 plus de six millions de personnes assist\u00e8rent \u00e0 la messe c\u00e9l\u00e9br\u00e9e \u00e0 Manille, ainsi que le Sri Lanka ; l\u2019\u00c9quateur, la Bolivie, le Paraguay, la Bosnie, Cuba, les \u00c9tats-Unis et l\u2019Organisation des Nations Unies (ONU). En novembre, il visita \u00e9galement le Kenya, l\u2019Ouganda et la R\u00e9publique centrafricaine. En Italie, il visita cette m\u00eame ann\u00e9e Prato, Florence, Turin, Pomp\u00e9i et Naples.<\/p>\n

\u00ab Lorsque j\u2019insiste sur la fronti\u00e8re, je fais particuli\u00e8rement r\u00e9f\u00e9rence \u00e0 la n\u00e9cessit\u00e9 pour l\u2019homme de culture d\u2019\u00eatre ins\u00e9r\u00e9 dans le contexte dans lequel il op\u00e8re et sur lequel il r\u00e9fl\u00e9chit. Il y a toujours le danger de vivre dans un laboratoire \u00bb, affirme Fran\u00e7ois, ajoutant : \u00ab Notre foi n\u2019est pas une foi de laboratoire, mais une foi de chemin, une foi historique. Dieu s\u2019est r\u00e9v\u00e9l\u00e9 comme histoire, non comme un recueil de v\u00e9rit\u00e9s abstraites… Il faut vivre \u00e0 la fronti\u00e8re \u00bb (SPADARO, 2013, p. 33-34).<\/p>\n

Dans une autre encyclique de 2015, Laudato Si\u2019 \u2013 Lou\u00e9 sois-tu, sur la sauvegarde de la maison commune<\/em>, le pape offre une r\u00e9flexion magistrale sur les d\u00e9bats autour de l\u2019\u00e9cologie int\u00e9grale. Le texte analyse l\u2019\u00e9tat actuel de la plan\u00e8te (pollution, climat, eau, biodiversit\u00e9, d\u00e9t\u00e9rioration de la vie et d\u00e9gradation sociale). Il aborde ensuite la Cr\u00e9ation et examine la racine humaine de la crise \u00e9cologique. C\u2019est sans aucun doute un document du magist\u00e8re apportant une contribution majeure et des critiques au syst\u00e8me \u00e9conomique g\u00e9n\u00e9rateur des crises \u00e9cologiques globales.<\/p>\n

Dans sa bulle Misericordiae Vultus<\/em> (2015), il convoque l\u2019Ann\u00e9e Sainte du Jubil\u00e9 extraordinaire de la Mis\u00e9ricorde, c\u00e9l\u00e9br\u00e9e du 8 d\u00e9cembre 2015 (f\u00eate de l\u2019Immacul\u00e9e Conception) au 20 novembre 2016 (f\u00eate du Christ-Roi).<\/p>\n

Ney de Souza,<\/em> PUC S\u00e3o Paulo<\/p>\n

11. R\u00e9f\u00e9rences bibliographiques<\/strong><\/p>\n

ALBERIGO, G. \u00c2ngelo Giuseppe Roncalli.<\/em> Jean XXIII. S\u00e3o Paulo : Paulinas, 2000.<\/p>\n

______. Formazione, contenuto e fortuna dell\u2019allocuzione. In : Fede Tradizione Profezia.<\/em> Brescia : Paidea, 1984, p.187-222.<\/p>\n

______ (dir.). Histoire des Conciles \u0153cum\u00e9niques<\/em>. S\u00e3o Paulo : Paulus, 1995.<\/p>\n

______. Le pontificat de Jean XXIII. In : FLICHE, A. ; MARTIN, V. (dir.). Storia della Chiesa. <\/em>XXXV\/1, Milan, San Paolo, 1994.<\/p>\n

______. La condamnation des communistes en 1949. In : Concilium <\/em>107 (1975), p.114-122.<\/p>\n

BASTANTE, J. ; VIDAL, J. M. Fran\u00e7ois, le nouveau Jean XXIII.<\/em> Jorge Mario Bergoglio, le premier pontife am\u00e9ricain pour un nouveau printemps de l\u2019\u00c9glise. Petr\u00f3polis : Vozes, 2013.<\/p>\n

C\u00c1RCEL, V. Histoire de l\u2019\u00c9glise.<\/em> III. L\u2019\u00c9glise \u00e0 l\u2019\u00e9poque contemporaine. Madrid : Ediciones Palabra, 2009.<\/p>\n

DREHER, M. N. L\u2019\u00c9glise latino-am\u00e9ricaine dans le contexte mondial.<\/em> S\u00e3o Leopoldo : Sinodal, 1999.<\/p>\n

ENGLISCH, A. Fran\u00e7ois, le pape des humbles.<\/em> S\u00e3o Paulo : Universo dos Livros, 2013.<\/p>\n

FLICHE, A. ; MARTIN, V. (dir.). Storia della Chiesa.<\/em> XXV\/1. L\u2019\u00c9glise du Concile Vatican II (1958-1978). Milan : San Paolo, 1994.<\/p>\n

FRAN\u00c7OIS. Exhortation apostolique Evangelii Gaudium.<\/em> La Joie de l\u2019\u00c9vangile. S\u00e3o Paulo : Paulinas, 2013.<\/p>\n

HOBSBAWN, E. L\u2019\u00c8re des extr\u00eames.<\/em> Le court XXe si\u00e8cle (1914-1991). S\u00e3o Paulo : Companhia das Letras, 2009.<\/p>\n

LABOA, J. M. Histoire de l\u2019\u00c9glise catholique.<\/em> Vol. \u00c2ge Contemporain. Madrid : BAC, 1992.<\/p>\n

LIBANIO, J. B. \u00c9glise contemporaine.<\/em> Rencontre avec la modernit\u00e9. S\u00e3o Paulo : Loyola, 2000.<\/p>\n

LEVILLAIN, Philippe (dir.). Dictionnaire Historique de la Papaut\u00e9.<\/em> Milan : Bompiani, 1996.<\/p>\n

MARTINA, G. L\u2019\u00c9glise \u00e0 l\u2019\u00e9poque du totalitarisme.<\/em> Vol. 4. Brescia : Morcelliana, 1991.<\/p>\n

______. L\u2019\u00c9glise \u00e0 l\u2019\u00e9poque du lib\u00e9ralisme.<\/em> Vol. 3. Brescia : Morcelliana, 1991.<\/p>\n

MATOS, H. C. Introduction \u00e0 l\u2019Histoire de l\u2019\u00c9glise.<\/em> Vol. 2. Belo Horizonte : O Lutador, 1997.<\/p>\n

MONDIN, B. Dictionnaire Encyclop\u00e9dique des Papes.<\/em> Histoire et enseignements. Rome : Citt\u00e0 Nuova, 1995.<\/p>\n

N\u00c9R\u00c9, J. Histoire contemporaine.<\/em> Rio de Janeiro : Difel, 1975.<\/p>\n

POLITI, M. Joseph Ratzinger : crise d\u2019un pontificat.<\/em> Rome-Bari : Laterza, 2011.<\/p>\n

POTEST\u00c0, G. L. ; VIAN, G. Histoire du Christianisme.<\/em> S\u00e3o Paulo : Loyola, 2013.<\/p>\n

SOUZA, N. ; GON\u00c7ALVES, P. S. L. Catholicisme et soci\u00e9t\u00e9 contemporaine.<\/em> Du Concile Vatican I au contexte historico-th\u00e9ologique du Concile Vatican II. S\u00e3o Paulo : Paulus, 2013.<\/p>\n

______. Contexte et d\u00e9veloppement historique du Vatican II. In : BOMBONATO, V. ; GON\u00c7ALVES, P. S. L. Concile Vatican II.<\/em> Analyse et perspectives. S\u00e3o Paulo : Paulinas, 2004.<\/p>\n

SPADARO, A. Entretien exclusif avec le pape Fran\u00e7ois.<\/em> S\u00e3o Paulo : Paulus \u2013 Loyola, 2013.<\/p>\n

TILLARD, Jean-Marie. Le rapport final du Synode de 1985. In : Concilium <\/em>208 (1986), p. 725-738.<\/p>\n

TORNIELLI, A. Beno\u00eet XVI, le gardien de la foi.<\/em> Biographie. S\u00e3o Paulo : Record, 2006.<\/p>\n

ZAGHENI, G. L\u2019\u00e9poque contemporaine.<\/em> Cours d\u2019Histoire de l\u2019\u00c9glise. Vol. IV. S\u00e3o Paulo : Paulus, 1999.<\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

Summary 1 French Revolution and the Catholic Church 1.1 Revolution inspired by the Enlightenment 2 Catholicism and the Restoration Process (1814\u20131846) 2.1 Restoration, a concept 2.2 Aggressive strategy against modernity 3 Catholicism and the fight against liberalism (1846\u20131878) 4 The social question and Catholicism 4.1 Leo XIII (1878\u20131903) and the social question 4.2 Rerum Novarum […]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":5,"featured_media":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"footnotes":""},"categories":[1113],"tags":[],"class_list":["post-3411","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","hentry","category-history-of-theology-and-christianity"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/teologicalatinoamericana.com\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/posts\/3411","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/teologicalatinoamericana.com\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/teologicalatinoamericana.com\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/teologicalatinoamericana.com\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/users\/5"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/teologicalatinoamericana.com\/index.php?rest_route=%2Fwp%2Fv2%2Fcomments&post=3411"}],"version-history":[{"count":1,"href":"https:\/\/teologicalatinoamericana.com\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/posts\/3411\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":3412,"href":"https:\/\/teologicalatinoamericana.com\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/posts\/3411\/revisions\/3412"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/teologicalatinoamericana.com\/index.php?rest_route=%2Fwp%2Fv2%2Fmedia&parent=3411"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/teologicalatinoamericana.com\/index.php?rest_route=%2Fwp%2Fv2%2Fcategories&post=3411"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/teologicalatinoamericana.com\/index.php?rest_route=%2Fwp%2Fv2%2Ftags&post=3411"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}